UFR Langues et Civilisations Pays anglophones Année Universitaire 2011-2012

Licence :

d’Anglais

Année de licence :

3ème Année

Semestre :

2nd semestre

Code de UE :

L6IAU8 Frontières de la discipline : Contemporary Issues

Nom de l’UE :

Motherhood and Law - dossiers 5 et 6 -

Auteur : Année de création :

Laurence MACHET 2012

Année de mise à jour :

Les cours sont strictement réservés à l’usage privé des étudiants inscrits à l’UFR Langues et Civilisations de l’université Michel de Montaigne de Bordeaux 3. Toute personne qui utiliserait ce document à d’autres usages ou qui en ferait une reproduction intégrale ou partielle sans le consentement de l’UFR Langues et Civilisations de l’université s’exposerait aux poursuites judiciaires et sanctions prévues par la loi.

Dossier n°5

ABORTION (6 documents)

In your presentation, you shall focus on the differences/similarities between France and Britain.

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Document 1: Department of Health – Abortion Statistics for England and Wales - Extrait

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Document 2: NHS Abortions http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Abortion/Pages/Introduction.aspx An abortion is the medical process of ending a pregnancy so that it does not result in the birth of a baby. The pregnancy is ended either by taking an abortion pill or by having a surgical procedure, depending on how many weeks pregnant you are . Sometimes, healthcare professionals may refer to an abortion as a 'termination of pregnancy' or 'termination'. An abortion is different from a miscarriage, where the pregnancy ends without medical intervention (although medical treatment may be needed after a miscarriage).

A difficult decision There are many reasons why you might decide to have an abortion – for example, because of your personal circumstances, because your health may be at risk, or there is a high probability that the baby will have a medical condition. The law in the UK makes it legal to have an abortion during the first 24 weeks of pregnancy so long as certain criteria are met (see below). There are also a few situations when the law states that an abortion may be carried out later. The Abortion Act 1967 covers the UK mainland (England, Scotland and Wales) but not Northern Ireland. The law states that:
abortions must be carried out in a hospital or a specialised licensed clinic
two doctors must agree that an abortion would cause less damage to a woman's physical or mental health than continuing with the pregnancy

NHS abortions If you want to have an abortion on the NHS, you might find it beneficial to discuss options with a health professional. You will need a referral from two doctors who have to agree that the requirements of the Abortion Act 1967 have been met. Usually, the first doctor is your GP and the second is a doctor who works at the hospital or clinic where the abortion will take place. If you do not want to ask your GP to refer you for an abortion, you can go to your local family planning clinic or genito-urinary medicine (GUM) clinic. Some doctors at these clinics can refer women for an NHS abortion, but if they cannot, they must refer you to another doctor. The law states that a doctor can refuse to certify a woman for an abortion if they have a moral objection to abortion. If this is the case, they should recommend another doctor who is willing to help. In some areas, women are able to refer themselves to the local Pregnancy Advisory Service, without first getting a referral from a local doctor. It does, however, help to talk to other health professionals such as your GP or contraception clinic nurse as well. You can self-refer for an NHS-funded abortion by calling the BPAS Actionline 08457 30 40 30. Funding of NHS abortion services differs in various parts of the country. The level of NHS provision ranges from more than 90% of local demand to less than 60%. In some areas, the NHS will pay for abortions at private clinics, but in other areas you may need to pay for an abortion in a private clinic.

Private abortions You can contact a private abortion clinic without being referred by a doctor. However, the NHS may not pay for this, and the agreement of two doctors is still required. The clinic will make the arrangements. Costs for abortions in private clinics vary and depend on: 7


which organisation or company carries out the abortion
the stage of pregnancy (earlier abortions are usually less expensive)
whether an overnight stay is needed
the method of abortion used If you are considering having an abortion, it is important to talk to somebody about it as soon as possible. In the UK, abortion is legal up until 24 weeks, but most are carried out much earlier than this. In 2009, 189,100 abortions were performed on residents in England and Wales, compared with 195,296 in 2008 (a fall of 3.2%). Ninety three per cent of abortions were carried out at under 13 weeks of pregnancy, and 75% at under 10 weeks. The abortion rate was highest for women aged 19-21 years, and most (94%) of abortions were funded by the NHS.

Personal decision Making a decision about whether to have an abortion is not easy. Before deciding, discuss your situation with healthcare professionals, family members and (if applicable) your partner. The final decision about whether or not to have an abortion is yours, and you should not be pressured into making a decision that you might later regret. If you are under 16, you can have an abortion without telling your parents, as long as two doctors believe it is in your best interests and you fully understand what is involved. However, the doctors will encourage you to involve your parents or another adult in your decision-making process. If you have an abortion, you have the right for it to remain confidential, regardless of your age.

The Abortion Act 1967 In accordance with The Abortion Act 1967, an abortion must be carried out before 24 weeks of pregnancy. But there are a few situations when the law states that an abortion may be carried out later. The law states that an abortion is legal after 24 weeks:
if it is necessary to save the woman's life
to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman
if there is substantial risk that if the child were born, it would suffer from physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped. Generally, an abortion should be carried out as early in the pregnancy as possible (ideally before 12 weeks) and those performed after 24 weeks are rare. Most abortions (90%) are carried out before 13 weeks and virtually all (98%) are performed before 20 weeks. The earlier an abortion is carried out, the easier and safer the procedure is to perform. However, you must be given enough time to consider all your options so that you are as comfortable as possible with your decision. To work out how many weeks pregnant you are, the calculation is usually made from the first day of your last period. If the exact stage of pregnancy is unclear, an ultrasound scan may be used.

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Document 3: La loi en GB et en France http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1967/87/introduction http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/interruption/sommaire.asp

Loi n° 75-17 du 17 janvier 1975 relative à l'interr uption volontaire de la grossesse (Publiée au Journal officiel du 18 janvier 1975)

Journal officiel de la République française du 18 janvier 1975

TITRE PREMIER Article premier. La loi garantit le respect de tout être humain dès le commencement de la vie. Il ne saurait être porté atteinte à ce principe qu'en cas de nécessité et selon les conditions définies par la présente loi. Art. 2. Est suspendue pendant une période de cinq ans à compter de la promulgation de la présente loi, l'application des dispositions des quatre premiers alinéas de l'article 317 du Code pénal lorsque l'interruption volontaire de la grossesse est pratiquée avant la fin de la dixième semaine par un médecin dans un établissement d'hospitalisation public ou un établissement d'hospitalisation privé satisfaisant aux dispositions de l'article L 176 du Code de la santé publique. TITRE II Art. 3. Après le chapitre III du titre premier du Livre II du Code de la santé publique, il est inséré un chapitre III bis intitulé "Interruption volontaire de la grossesse". Art. 4. La section I du chapitre III bis du titre premier du Livre II du Code de la santé publique est

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ainsi rédigée : " SECTION I " Interruption volontaire de la grossesse pratiquée avant la fin de la dixième semaine. " Art. L. 162-1. - La femme enceinte que son état place dans une situation de détresse peut demander à un médecin l'interruption de sa grossesse. Cette interruption ne peut être pratiquée qu'avant la fin de la dixième semaine de grossesse. " Art. L. 162-2. - L'interruption volontaire d'une grossesse ne peut être pratiquée que par un médecin. " Elle ne peut avoir lieu que dans un établissement d'hospitalisation public ou dans un établissement d'hospitalisation privé satisfaisant aux dispositions de l'article L. 176. " Art. L. 162-3. - Le médecin sollicité par une femme en vue de l'interruption de sa grossesse doit, sous réserve de l'article L. 162-8 : " 1° Informer celle-ci des risques médicaux qu'elle encourt pour elle-même et pour ses maternités futures ; " 2° Remettre à l'intéressée un dossier guide compo rtant : " a) L'énumération des droits, aides et avantages garantis par la loi aux familles, aux mères, célibataires ou non, et à leurs enfants, ainsi que des possibilités offertes par l'adoption d'un enfant à naître ; " b) La liste et les adresses des organismes visés à l'article L. 162-4. " Un arrêté précisera dans quelles conditions les directions départementales d'action sanitaire et sociale assureront la réalisation des dossiers guides destinés aux médecins. " Art. L. 162-4. - Une femme s'estimant placée dans la situation visée à l'article L. 162-1 doit, après la démarche prévue à l'article L. 162-3, consulter un établissement d'information, de consultation ou de conseil familial, un centre de planification ou d'éducation familiale, un service social ou un autre organisme agréé qui devra lui délivrer une attestation de consultation. " Cette consultation comporte un entretien particulier au cours duquel une assistance et des conseils appropriés à la situation de l'intéressée lui sont apportés, ainsi que les moyens nécessaires pour résoudre les problèmes sociaux posés. " Les personnels des organismes visés au premier alinéa sont soumis aux dispositions de l'article 378 du Code pénal. " Chaque fois que cela est possible, le couple participe à la consultation et à la décision à prendre. " Art. L 162-5. - Si la femme renouvelle, après les consultations prévues aux articles L 162-3 et L 162-4, sa demande d'interruption de grossesse, le médecin doit lui demander une confirmation écrite ; il ne peut accepter cette confirmation qu'après l'expiration d'un délai d'une semaine suivant la première demande de la femme. " Art. L. 162-6. - En cas de confirmation, le médecin peut pratiquer lui-même l'interruption de grossesse dans les conditions fixées au deuxième alinéa de l'article L. 162-2. S'il ne pratique pas lui-même l'intervention, il restitue à la femme sa demande pour que celle-ci soit remise au médecin choisi par elle et lui délivre en outre un certificat attestant qu'il s'est conformé aux dispositions des articles L 162-3 et L 162-5. " L'établissement dans lequel la femme demande son admission doit se faire remettre les attestations justifiant qu'elle a satisfait aux consultations prescrites aux articles L. 162-3 à L. 162-5.

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" Art. L. 162-7. - Si la femme est mineurs célibataire, le consentement de l'une des personnes qui exerce l'autorité parentale ou, le cas échéant, du représentant légal est requis. " Art L. 162-8. - Un médecin n'est jamais tenu de donner suite à une demande d'interruption de grossesse ni de pratiquer celle-ci mais il doit informer, dès la première visite, l'intéressée de son refus. " Sous la même réserve, aucune sage-femme, aucun infirmier ou infirmière, aucun auxiliaire médical, quel qu'il soit, n'est tenu de concourir à une interruption de grossesse. " Un établissement d'hospitalisation privé peut refuser que des interruptions volontaires de grossesse soient pratiquées dans ses locaux. " Toutefois, dans le cas où l'établissement a demandé à participer à l'exécution du service public hospitalier ou conclu un contrat de concession, en application de la loi n° 70-1318 du 31 décembre 1970 portant réforme hospitalière, ce refus ne peut être opposé que si d'autres établissements sont en mesure de répondre aux besoins locaux. " Art. L. 162-9. - Tout établissement dans lequel est pratiquée une interruption de grossesse doit assurer, après l'intervention, l'information de la femme en matière de régulation des naissances. " Art. L. 162-10. - Toute interruption de grossesse doit faire l'objet d'une déclaration établie par le médecin et adressée par l'établissement où elle est pratiquée au médecin inspecteur régional de la santé ; cette déclaration ne fait aucune mention de l'identité de la femme. " Art. L. 162-11. - L'interruption de grossesse n'est autorisée pour une femme étrangère que si celle-ci justifie de conditions de résidence fixées par voie réglementaire. " Les femmes célibataires étrangères âgées de moins de dix-huit ans doivent en outre se soumettre aux conditions prévues à l'article L. 162-7." Art. 5. La section II du chapitre III bis du titre premier du Livre II du code de la santé publique est ainsi rédigée : " SECTION II " Interruption volontaire de la grossesse pratiquée pour motif thérapeutique. " Art. L. 162-12. - L'interruption volontaire d'une grossesse peut, à toute époque, être pratiquée si deux médecins attestent, après examen et discussion, que la poursuite de la grossesse met en péril grave la santé de la femme ou qu'il existe une forte probabilité que l'enfant à naître soit atteint d'une affection d'une particulière gravité reconnue comme incurable au moment du diagnostic. " L'un des deux médecins doit exercer son activité dans un établissement d'hospitalisation public ou dans un établissement d'hospitalisation privé satisfaisant aux conditions de l'article L 176 et l'autre être inscrit sur une liste d'experts près la Cour de cassation ou près d'une cour d'appel. " Un des exemplaires de la consultation est remis à l'intéressée ; deux autres sont conservés par les médecins consultants. " Art. L. 162-13. - Les dispositions des articles L. 162-2 et L. 162-8 à L. 162-10 sont applicables à l'interruption volontaire de la grossesse pratiquée pour motif thérapeutique." Art. 6. Le section III du chapitre III bis du titre premier du Livre II du Code de la santé publique est ainsi rédigée :

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" SECTION III " Dispositions communes. " Art. L. 162-14. - Un décret en Conseil d'État fixera les conditions d'application du présent chapitre." TITRE III Art. 7. I. - L'intitulé de la section I du chapitre V du Livre II du Code de la santé publique est modifié comme suit : " SECTION I " Etablissements d'hospitalisation recevant des femmes enceintes. II. - A l'article L. 176 du code de la santé publique les mots "une clinique, une maison d'accouchement ou un établissement privé" sont remplacés par les mots "un établissement d'hospitalisation privé". III. - L'article L. 178 du code de la santé publique est modifié comme suit : " Art. L 178. - Le préfet peut, sur rapport du médecin inspecteur départemental de la santé prononcer le retrait de l'autorisation prévue à l'article L. 176 si l'établissement cesse de remplir les conditions fixées par le décret prévu audit article ou s'il contrevient aux dispositions des articles L. 162-6, deuxième alinéa, et L. 162-9 à L. 162-11." IV. - Il est introduit dans le Code de la santé publique un article L. 178-1 ainsi rédigé : " Art. L. 178-1. - Dans les établissements visés à l'article L. 176 le nombre d'interruptions volontaires de grossesse pratiquées chaque année ne pourra être supérieur au quart du total des actes chirurgicaux et obstétricaux. " Tout dépassement entraînera la fermeture de l'établissement pendant un an. En cas de récidive, la fermeture sera définitive." Art. 8. Les frais de soins et d'hospitalisation afférents à l'avortement volontaire, effectué dans les conditions prévues au chapitre III bis du titre premier du Livre II du Code de la santé publique, ne peuvent excéder les tarifs fixés en application de l'ordonnance n° 45-1483 du 30 juin 1945 relative aux prix. Art. 9. Il est ajouté au titre III, chapitre VII du Code de la famille et de l'aide sociale un article L 1812 ainsi rédigé : " Art. L 181-2. - Les frais de soins et d'hospitalisation afférents à l'interruption volontaire de grossesse effectuée dans les conditions prévues au chapitre III bis du titre premier du Livre II du Code de la santé publique sont pris en charge dans les conditions fixées par décret." Art. 10.

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L'article L. 647 du code de la santé publique est remplacé par les dispositions suivantes : " Art. L. 647. - Sans préjudice des dispositions de l'article 60 du Code pénal, seront punis d'un emprisonnement de deux mois à deux ans et d'une amende de 2.000 à 20.000 F ou de l'une de ces deux peines seulement, ceux qui, par un moyen quelconque, auront provoqué à l'interruption de grossesse, même licite, alors même que cette provocation n'aurait pas été suivie d'effet. " Seront punis des mêmes peines ceux qui, par un moyen quelconque, sauf dans les publications réservées aux médecins et aux pharmaciens, auront fait de la propagande ou de la publicité directe ou indirecte concernant soit les établissements dans lesquels sont pratiquées les interruptions de grossesse, soit les médicaments, produits et objets ou méthodes destinés à procurer ou présentés comme de nature à procurer une interruption de grossesse. " En cas de provocation, de propagande ou de publicité au moyen de l'écrit, même introduit de l'étranger, de la parole ou de l'image, même si celles-ci ont été émises de l'étranger, pourvu qu'elles aient été perçues en France, les poursuites prévues aux alinéas précédents seront exercées contre les personnes énumérées à l'article 285 du Code pénal, dans les conditions fixées par cet article, si le délit a été commis par la voie de la presse, et contre les personnes reconnues responsables de l'émission ou, à leur défaut, les chefs d'établissements, directeurs ou gérants des entreprises ayant procédé à la diffusion ou en ayant tiré profit, si le délit a été commis par toute autre voie." Art. 11. Les dispositions du titre II de la présente loi seront applicables tant que le titre premier restera en vigueur. L'application des articles L. 161-1, L. 650 et L. 759 du Code de la santé publique est suspendue pour la même durée. Art. 12. Le début du deuxième alinéa de l'article 378 du Code pénal est ainsi rédigé : " Toutefois, les personnes ci-dessus énumérées, sans être tenues de dénoncer les avortements pratiqués dans des conditions autres que celles qui sont prévues par la loi, dont elles ont eu connaissance..." (Le reste sans changement.) Art. 13. En aucun cas l'interruption volontaire de la grossesse ne doit constituer un moyen de régulation des naissances. A cet effet, le Gouvernement prendra toutes les mesures nécessaires pour développer l'information la plus large possible sur la régulation des naissances, notamment par la création généralisée, dans les centres de protection maternelle et infantile, de centres de planification ou d'éducation familiale et par l'utilisation de tous les moyens d'information. Art. 14. Chaque centre de planification ou d'éducation familiale constitué dans les centres de protection maternelle et infantile sera doté des moyens nécessaires pour informer, conseiller et aider la femme qui demande une interruption volontaire de grossesse. Art. 15. Les décrets pris pour l'application de la présente loi seront publiés dans un délai de six mois

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à compter de la date de sa promulgation. Art. 16. Le rapport sur la situation démographique de la France, présenté chaque année au Parlement par le ministre chargé de la Population, en application de la loi n° 67-1176 du 28 décembre 1967, comportera des développements sur les aspects sociodémographiques de l'avortement.. En outre, l'Institut national d'études démographiques analysera et publiera, en liaison avec l'Institut national de la santé et de la recherche médicale, les statistiques établies à partir des déclarations prévues à l'article L. 162-10 du Code de la santé publique.

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Document 4: Direction de la recherche, des études, de l’évaluation et des statistiques – Etudes et Résultats, n° 765, juin 2011

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Document 5: L’avortement en France http://vosdroits.service-public.fr/F1551.xhtml

Principe L'avortement est accessible à toute femme en situation de détresse du fait de sa grossesse. La femme est seule juge de cette situation et est libre de sa décision. La pratique de l'interruption volontaire de grossesse (IVG) est réglementée et plusieurs étapes doivent être respectées, avant et après l'intervention.

Conditions légales Le délai légal d'avortement est fixé en France à la fin de la 12ème semaine de grossesse, soit 14 semaines après le 1er jour des dernières règles. La jeune fille mineure non émancipée doit en principe avoir l'autorisation d'un représentant légal mais elle doit donner son propre consentement en dehors de la présence de ses parents. Si le dialogue familial est impossible, la jeune fille peut se passer de l'autorisation parentale. Elle doit dans ce cas, se faire accompagner par une personne majeure de son choix (adulte de son entourage ou membre du planning familial par exemple). Le rôle de cet adulte est de l'accompagner et de la soutenir psychologiquement.

Consultations préalables et postérieures à l'intervention Première consultation médicale Le médecin procède à un examen clinique, il informe la patiente des différentes méthodes et lui présente les risques et les effets secondaires potentiels. Il doit également lui remettre un dossier-guide qui comprend : • le rappel de la règlementation, • la liste des établissements autorisés à pratiquer l'IVG et leurs adresses, • la liste des établissements d'information, de consultation et de conseil familial, des centres de planification et d'éducation familiale, des services sociaux et d'autres organismes agréés. Le médecin peut également proposer un dépistage de maladies sexuellement transmissibles (MST) et prescrire un futur mode de contraception. Dans tous les cas, il est conseillé de prendre rendez-vous le plus tôt possible, compte tenu des délais d'attente. À savoir : un médecin n'est pas tenu de prendre en charge lui-même la demande d'IVG. Il doit dans ce cas en informer immédiatement la femme qui en fait la demande et l'orienter, en lui donnant le nom de confrères susceptibles de réaliser l'intervention, que ce soit en établissement ou en médecine de ville. Entretien psycho-social Il permet d'apporter une assistance et des conseils appropriés à la situation de la femme enceinte. Chaque fois que cela est possible, celle-ci est invitée à s'y rendre avec son compagnon. Cet entretien est systématiquement proposé aux femmes majeures ou mineures émancipées, mais il reste facultatif. En revanche, il est obligatoire pour les mineures non émancipées, et fait alors l'objet de la remise d'une attestation d'entretien, indispensable pour procéder à l'IVG. Cette consultation a lieu en principe dans le courant de la semaine suivant la consultation médicale.

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Quelle que soit la situation, elle doit intervenir au moins 48 heures avant l'IVG. Dans les hôpitaux publics, les centres d'IVG doivent proposer des permanences destinées à ce type d'entretien, afin de permettre à la femme enceinte d'accomplir l'ensemble des démarches. 2ème consultation médicale Elle a lieu 7 jours minimum après la première. Ce délai peut toutefois être réduit si le seuil des 12 semaines de grossesse risque d'être dépassé. Lors de cette consultation, la femme remet au médecin la confirmation écrite de sa demande d'IVG. La jeune femme mineure doit en outre présenter l'attestation d'entretien. Si le médecin est habilité à pratiquer l'IVG, il peut dès lors la réaliser. Mais si la patiente souhaite la faire pratiquer par un autre médecin, il doit alors lui délivrer un certificat attestant qu'elle s'est conformée aux consultations préalables. Visite de contrôle après l'intervention Une consultation de contrôle et de vérification de l'IVG est réalisée entre le 14ème jour et le 21ème jour suivant l'intervention. Le médecin ou la sage-femme envisage avec la patiente un moyen de contraception adapté à sa situation.

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Document 6: Abortion in ancient history http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/abortion/legal/history_1.shtml

Ancient Greece and Rome

Roman couple; 1st-century fresco from Pompeii Abortion was accepted in both ancient Rome and Greece. The Romans and Greeks weren't much concerned with protecting the unborn, and when they did object to abortion it was often because the father didn't want to be deprived of a child that he felt entitled to. The early philosophers also argued that a foetus did not become formed and begin to live until at least 40 days after conception for a male, and around 80 days for a female. The philosopher Aristotle wrote: ...when couples have children in excess, let abortion be procured before sense and life have begun; what may or may not be lawfully done in these cases depends on the question of life and sensation. Aristotle, Politics 7.16 Aristotle thought that female embryos developed more slowly than male embryos, but made up for lost time by developing more quickly after birth. He appears to have arrived at this idea by seeing the relative development of male and female foetuses that had been miscarried.

Bible times The Old Testament has several legal passages that refer to abortion, but they deal with it in terms of loss of property and not sanctity of life. The status of the foetus as property in the Bible is shown by the law that if a person causes a miscarriage they must pay a fine to the husband of the woman, but if they also cause the woman to die then they are liable to be killed. The New Testament doesn't explicitly deal with abortion.

Western history Through much of Western history abortion was not criminal if it was carried out before 'quickening'; that is before the foetus moved in the womb at between 18 and 20 weeks into the pregnancy. Until that time people tended to regard the foetus as part of the mother and so its destruction posed no greater ethical problem than other forms of surgery.

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England

13th-century depiction of a herbalist preparing pennyroyal, a traditional herbal abortifacient English Common Law agreed that abortion was a crime after 'quickening' - but the seriousness of that crime was different at different times in history. In 1803 English Statute Law made abortion after quickening a crime that earned the death penalty, but a less serious crime before that. In 1837 English law abolished the significance of quickening, and also abandoned the death penalty for abortion. In the 1920s English law added a get-out clause that stopped abortion being a crime if it was "done in good faith for the purpose only of preserving the life of the mother." This change officially recognised a little-stressed feature of anti-abortion laws; they were often intended to protect women from a dangerous medical procedure, and not to protect the life of the foetus. In 1938 the important case of R v Bourne decided in favour of an abortion performed on a 14 year old girl who had been raped - the court felt that the girl's mental health would have suffered had she given birth - and this established that the mother's mental suffering could be sufficient reason for an abortion. The judge (Mr. Justice Macnaghten) put it like this: ...if the doctor is of the opinion, on reasonable grounds and with adequate knowledge, that the probable consequence of the continuance of the pregnancy will be to make the woman a physical or mental wreck, the jury are entitled to take the view that the doctor ... is operating for the purpose of preserving the life of the mother. And the principle the judge set down in that case governed British thinking about abortion for nearly 30 years.

The Abortion Act of 1967 What the Act actually stated The Abortion Act of 1967 revolutionised the situation in England by allowing doctors to perform an abortion where two other doctors agree: that the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk to the life of the pregnant woman, or of injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman or any existing children of her family, greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, or that there is a substantial risk that if the child were born it would suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped.

Sufficient grounds It's easier to understand what the act allowed if you list the possible situations. Any one of the reasons below gives sufficient grounds for an abortion:
the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk to the life of the pregnant woman greater than if the pregnancy were terminated
the termination is necessary to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman

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the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk, greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, of injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman
the continuance of the pregnancy would involve risk, greater than if the pregnancy were terminated, of injury to the physical or mental health of any existing child(ren) of the family of the pregnant woman;
there is a substantial risk that if the child were born it would suffer from such physical or mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped
Two grounds apply in an emergency:
to save the life of the pregnant woman
to prevent grave permanent injury to the physical or mental health of the pregnant woman

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Dossier n°6

ADOPTION (7 documents)

In your presentation, you shall focus on the situation of adoption and the differences/similarities between France and Britain.

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Document 1: Adoption statistics for England: get the data – The Guardian, 31 October 2011 •

What's happening to adoptions in England? See how the numbers compare

Children looked after by local authority map Photograph: Guardian

Adoptions are at a record low - with only 60 babies adopted in 2010/11. It is in the news today as councils deemed to have let down children in their care face having their responsibilities handed over to another local authority or sub-contracted out to the private sector or charities under new plans to be announced by David Cameron. Polly Curtis' excellent Reality Check series looked at possible causes for the fall. So what do the statistics say? What are the numbers? The figures detail all children "looked after" by local authorities in England - this includes under-18s in care, living with relatives or those who have been adopted. A large number are living outside care, in fact. This shows what happens to those 6,290: How many babies are adopted or taken into care? The Department of Education figures show that last year only 60 babies were adopted out of a total of 3,050 children adopted overall, a drop from 3,330 in 2007. At the same time 65,520 children were being looked after, up from 59,970 in 2007. Of this, 9,480 were taken into care. The average period a child spends looked after before adoption was 2.7 years, which has stayed pretty much stable since 2007.

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Where are children being looked after? The figures detail what happens to children in each local authority. This map shows where the numbers are proportionately highest: The key facts are: • Manchester has the highest rate in England - 142 children per 10,00 under 18s are being looked after by the local authority, which is 1,385. Of those, only 9% were adopted in 2010/11, one of the lowest figures in the country. Another 37% were taken into care • 66% of the 455 children looked after in Rochdale were taken into care, the highest figure in the country • Birmingham has the highest number of looked-after children - 1,900, a rate of 75 per 10,000 under-18s in the area. 42% of those children are taken into care and another 12% adopted, again a relatively low rate • 27% of Peterborough's 310 looked-after children were adopted - the highest figure in England • Of the bigger authorities, Suffolk, with nearly 800 looked-after children, had the highest adoption rate, 21% Who's being adopted? The white population is roughly equal to the distribution across the country, the black British population is slightly over-represented at 10% (compared to around 3% of the population. But if you look at the ethnic breakdown of those looked-after, then white children do seem more likely to be adopted. Data summary Children looked after, adopted and taken into care, 2011

Place

Click heading to sort table. Rates are per 10,000 children. Rate per % of children % change, % of children 10,000 under adopted in 2011 2010-2011 taken into care 18yrs 2010/11

SOURCE: DFE England 65,5202 North East 3,820 5 Darlington 185 28 Durham 520 4 Gateshead 365 22 Hartlepool 165 0 Middlesbrough 330 3 Newcastle Upon Tyne 525 0 North Tyneside 285 4 Northumberland 265 -7 Redcar and Cleveland 150 -3 South Tyneside 315 7 Stockton-On-Tees 295 4 Sunderland 410 5

59 73 86 52 95 82 105 101 71 44 53 105 69 73

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11 15 x 15 17 19 14 17 13 14 14 23 10 15

35 28 20 30 34 24 26 24 26 27 41 46 19 21

Children looked after, adopted and taken into care, 2011

Place

Click heading to sort table. Rates are per 10,000 children. Rate per % of children % change, % of children 2011 10,000 under adopted in 2010-2011 taken into care 18yrs 2010/11 11,3502 77 13 41

North West Blackburn with Darwen Blackpool Bolton Bury Cheshire Cheshire East Cheshire West and Chester Cumbria Halton Knowsley Lancashire Liverpool Manchester Oldham Rochdale Salford Sefton St Helens Stockport Tameside Trafford Warrington Wigan Wirral Yorkshire and The Humber Barnsley Bradford Calderdale Doncaster East Riding of Yorkshire Kingston Upon Hull Kirklees Leeds North East Lincolnshire North Lincolnshire North Yorkshire Rotherham

365

0

96

24

42

395 520 325 . 440

5 8 12 1

136 83 77 . 59

14 18 10 . 11

42 53 38 . 39

345

6

51

8

30

505 125 285 1,295 940 1,385 335 455 580 380 345 295 375 265 245 465 680

-1 -14 -3 1 2 -3 -3 6 17 1 -3 -6 7 6 -8 -9 8

53 47 85 53 111 142 61 93 123 70 91 49 78 54 57 71 102

20 15 16 11 17 9 14 19 16 9 14 15 15 11 8 13 15

37 43 35 41 40 37 63 66 48 30 39 33 42 35 20 30 53

66

15

44

7,300 3 245 890 320 450

0 0 19 -4

51 69 70 72

19 11 22 11

51 33 53 41

305

11

47

8

50

620 9 590 6 1,450 2

117 62 95

20 17 13

37 48 54

145

-6

43

25

21

165 475 390

3 1 -5

48 40 70

11 8 20

30 25 49

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Children looked after, adopted and taken into care, 2011 Click heading to sort table. Rates are per 10,000 children. Rate per % of children % change, Place 2011 10,000 under adopted in 2010-2011 18yrs 2010/11 Sheffield 625 8 59 20 Wakefield 395 5 58 16 York 235 4 67 25 East Midlands 4,430 5 48 13 Derby 460 10 87 20 Derbyshire 660 5 42 14 Leicester 495 3 70 16 Leicestershire 350 8 27 5 Lincolnshire 490 -7 35 17 Northamptonshire 735 5 48 11 Nottingham 520 0 92 12 Nottinghamshire 685 19 43 10 17 37 0 Rutland 35 West Midlands 8,180 2 68 12 75 12 Birmingham 1,900 -6 Coventry 585 -1 86 10 Dudley 610 0 93 13 Herefordshire 200 21 57 22 Sandwell 545 7 79 12 37 7 Shropshire 220 0 Solihull 400 -2 90 x Staffordshire 795 7 47 12 Stoke-On-Trent 410 1 80 21 Telford and Wrekin 270 0 71 22 85 22 Walsall 520 5 Warwickshire 635 9 57 10 Wolverhampton 495 22 94 14 Worcestershire 590 2 51 8 East of England 6,400 3 52 12 . . Bedfordshire . Bedford Borough 165 0 46 14 Central Bedfordshire 175 9 31 x Cambridgeshire 470 -1 37 14 53 10 Essex 1,580 8 Hertfordshire 1,095 -4 44 7 Luton 385 13 78 6 Norfolk 960 8 59 8 Peterborough 310 3 76 27 Southend-on-Sea 270 2 76 21 Suffolk 785 0 52 21 Thurrock 210 -11 57 6 10,390-5 61 7 London Inner London 4,600 -6 75 7

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% of children taken into care 45 56 48 29 42 31 46 23 35 17 19 29 x 32 42 28 42 32 28 34 14 28 42 34 31 23 30 27 32 . 32 30 39 23 41 31 31 38 37 30 31 37 46

Children looked after, adopted and taken into care, 2011 Click heading to sort table. Rates are per 10,000 children. Rate per % of children % change, Place 2011 10,000 under adopted in 2010-2011 18yrs 2010/11 Camden 275 4 69 5 City Of London 10 -33 93 0 Hackney 265 -10 51 6 Hammersmith and 250 -4 79 11 Fulham Haringey 615 4 125 5 Islington 325 3 94 x Kensington and 130 -16 43 8 Chelsea Lambeth 500 -12 92 7 Lewisham 485 -8 81 11 Newham 490 -12 74 11 94 5 Southwark 520 -6 Tower Hamlets 325 -7 63 5 40 14 Wandsworth 205 0 Westminster 210 -14 57 x Outer London 5,780 -4 54 7 Barking and 410 9 83 10 Dagenham 38 7 Barnet 305 -2 Bexley 215 -2 41 10 Brent 385 4 66 4 Bromley 265 -7 39 9 Croydon 845 -16 104 2 56 5 Ealing 385 -4 Enfield 305 9 42 9 Greenwich 590 -1 109 8 Harrow 140 -12 28 5 Havering 200 0 39 9 63 5 Hillingdon 385 -9 Hounslow 345 -3 67 13 Kingston Upon 115 -8 33 9 Thames Merton 130 -4 31 x Redbridge 210 -9 32 6 Richmond Upon -5 22 x 90 Thames Sutton 165 14 37 9 Waltham Forest 310 -7 56 9 South East 8,480 4 46 10 Bracknell Forest 85 -6 32 0 103 13 Brighton and Hove 485 4 Buckinghamshire 385 12 33 9

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% of children taken into care 51 x 43 61 61 38 26 29 39 53 44 57 44 32 30 39 46 22 42 23 10 19 41 37 45 42 7 31 23 39 18 33 31 48 34 29 44 46

Children looked after, adopted and taken into care, 2011 Click heading to sort table. Rates are per 10,000 children. Rate per % of children % change, Place 2011 10,000 under adopted in 2010-2011 18yrs 2010/11 East Sussex 585 10 57 20 Hampshire 1,085 -2 39 8 Isle Of Wight 175 -3 67 x Kent 1,695 15 54 8 Medway Towns 425 21 73 12 Milton Keynes 270 4 46 9 Oxfordshire 430 -4 31 9 Portsmouth 315 9 82 10 Reading 215 5 69 12 Slough 170 -3 53 9 Southampton 385 3 89 10 Surrey 735 -4 30 14 34 x West Berkshire 125 0 West Sussex 750 -4 45 11 Windsor and 105 0 31 x Maidenhead Wokingham 70 -12 20 17 South West 5,160 3 49 12 Bath and North East 160 14 47 x Somerset Bournemouth 200 -2 68 19 Bristol 680 5 84 15 Cornwall 475 6 45 13 Devon 645 5 45 5 34 6 Dorset 275 0 Gloucestershire 485 -1 39 12 Isles Of Scilly 0 0 0 North Somerset 230 2 53 17 Plymouth 375 -14 76 20 47 19 Poole 135 12 Somerset 450 5 41 8 South Gloucestershire 210 14 38 x Swindon 235 -4 53 9 86 15 Torbay 220 22 Wiltshire 385 8 38 11

% of children taken into care 52 25 29 29 18 47 34 46 41 25 36 39 40 32 21 20 26 25 23 36 36 19 20 29 0 22 33 28 22 28 21 20 20

Source: Department for Education http://www.education.gov.uk/researchandstatistics/statistics/a00196857/children-looked-afterby-local-authorities-in-engl

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Document 2: Loi en GB et en France Adoption and Children Act 2002 http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2002/38/contents

Adoption Order http://www.compactlaw.co.uk/free-legal-information/adoption-law/adoption-order.html

En France : http://www.adoption.gouv.fr/

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Document 3: Race dilemma at the heart of our adoption crisis The Observer, Sunday 6 July 2008 http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2008/jul/06/children.communities1/print The majority of children awaiting adoption in Britain are black, Asian or mixed-race while most available adopters are white. The issue of 'transracial' adoption is hugely controversial with experts divided on what is best for the young, vulnerable children. Chief reporter Tracy McVeigh investigates Fiona Graham is white, but she has been racially abused when out with her children over the past few years. 'They don't shout at the kids, but there have been a few choice things said to me,' she says. 'Paki lover' is a favourite. That's if she's not with her oil rig worker husband, who is as white as she is and of an intimidating stature. The Grahams have two children, Aisha, 10, and Burhan, five, who were born to a British Pakistani woman and a white father in the north-east of England. The couple, from Stirlingshire, adopted the children three years ago and Graham knows they will have some unique issues ahead of them as a family, but she is determined to be as prepared for them as she possibly can. 'Aisha had been in care for two years and Burhan for 17 months, all his life, when we first asked about them. But we were refused point blank because they were looking for a Pakistani Muslim couple. It took another five months before their social worker would consider us. But as far as I was concerned, the kids were being brought up with white Christian foster carers with no one else in sight for them. When Aisha first arrived here she had never even heard the word Pakistan. I do see how much they need to learn about their heritage; in fact, I see it more now than I maybe even realised at that time. Already Burhan recognises there is a difference in colour between us. The need to belong is inbuilt in them and as their colour and their heritage did not come from us, then we need to make sure they understand and explore that part of them. 'I absolutely know we did the right thing and you have to consider children's need for love and security and everything else comes after that. If I didn't think that, my kids would still be in care.' But as Britain becomes an ever more multicultural society, families like the Grahams are becoming increasingly controversial. The debate over transracial adoptions that has gone on, almost unheard, in Britain since the 1950s is hitting a crescendo, challenging the adoption agencies and social workers to clarify policy and accusing them of 'taking the foot off the pedal'. The first government-commissioned report in nearly a decade to look at the issues around black and ethnic minority children in care is due to be published this month and tomorrow a major conference on the issue, organised by the British Association for Adoption and Fostering (BAAF) and entitled 'Why Am I Waiting?', will take place in London. Adoption has changed since the days when childless married couples toured children's homes and, as long as they had a clean house, could choose the cutest baby. No longer are single mothers shamed into putting their babies up for adoption, and with more fertility treatment available there are fewer prospective adopters around too. In 1976 some 22,000 children were adopted. In 2007 it was less than 3,500 - 2,200 of them were children from care. Most of the children who need new families have begun life with alcoholic, drug-dependent, abusive or potentially abusive parents. Finding them a new family has become intensely complex. For each child in their care, local authorities will look through their own books for an adopter. But if there is no match in their own pool of parents, then there are funding considerations - looking further afield and approaching other local authorities to search their waiting lists brings an 'inter-agency' fee.

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Time spent in care is directly related to well-being. Research shows children in care fare far worse than adopted children and are susceptible to brain damage and emotional and attachment issues. One per cent of children from the care system reach university, compared to 40 per cent of the general population. There were approximately 65,000 children in care in England and Wales in 2005, of whom around 40 per cent will return to their birth families. Just under 80 per cent are white in a country where 87 per cent of the population describe themselves as white British - meaning children from ethnic minorities are over-represented in the care system, and staying there longer. The issue has been sending a slow shockwave through the system and behind the growing calls for a rethink on the approach to transracial adoption are two phenomona. The first is that efforts to match children's ethnicity with the ethnicity of adopters slows down the process for black and mixed-race children. The vast majority of available adopters in this country are white and middle-class. The second are the new voices joining the debate - black and mixed-race children who were adopted by white families in the Sixties and Seventies are now adults and are becoming increasingly vocal about their experiences of lifelong identity issues, mental health problems and deep feelings of isolation that came with even the most loving of homes. Their mantra is that 'love is not enough'. David, now a 45-year-old academic, of dual heritage - white and Arab - was adopted by a white couple in 1962. 'Love is not enough,' he said, 'and there's a living community struggling with the consequences. Where do these children [placed in white families] get their linguistic, religious and cultural knowledge from? The main problem is the under-theorisation of the issues. 'The experience of racism had a profound impact on me. It would have been helpful for people around me to have had an understanding of that and of the cultural issues that one inevitably struggles with. It's about a sense of isolation - one never fits in with either community. We exist in a third space, outside other communities. It is a debilitating experience. We need a radical rethink on transracial adoptions.' His parents were 'supportive and loving', but for David that did not counteract what he describes as a 'lifelong experience of verbal and physical abuse and various types of sophisticated institutional racisms'. He has found tremendous similarities with other interracial adoptees and says: 'All of us are on a journey, but it will have no resolution for us. I don't think they [social workers] have a grasp of the enormity of it. People aren't tracked through life. Mental health services have no grasp of it. 'It's not simply a case of whether children should not be placed in white families; a family setting is always preferable. But it would need parents prepared far more than they are, prior and during the adoption process. "We're liberal parents, we'll do all we can" - this is just tokenism. "We'll explain Eid, we'll explain Ramadan," a few Islamic books around the house ... that's not good enough, that's just insulting.' In one survey of adults who had been adopted as children, around 46 per cent of white people said that, even though it was a positive adoption, they felt a sense of not belonging. With transracial adoptees that figure leapt to almost three-quarters. 'Research is scant: there are a lot of small-scale studies but there is a real drought of understanding. I think the foot has been taken off the pedal for black and ethnic minority children whose needs, meanwhile, have been continuing to grow. Interracial adoption is a relatively new phenomenon, an 18-year period really,' said Sue Cotton, head of adoption services at the children's charity NCH. 'There's a gap in knowledge. We know there's an over-representation of black and ethnic minority children in care, just as there is over-representation in the prison service, in mental health services, but we don't know why. The overriding thing we do know is that kids in families do better than kids in care, but one of the big driving forces behind everyone now is

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these testimonies from the adopted children of the Sixties and Seventies who are reporting that impact, those very human issues of identity that no one expected to be so fundamental.' There are not enough adopters coming forward from ethnically diverse backgrounds, says Savita de Sousa of BAAF. The Soul Kids Campaign in 1975 in London was the first attempt to recruit black adoptive families and, along with another project in the 1980s, they blamed the shortage on the agencies themselves for showing 'eurocentrism'. 'Things have been constantly changing in this debate. The Blair government said, "Love and care is enough," but it's unresolved,' said de Sousa. 'Love is an important factor but it's not the only factor. We cannot be colour blind. It's what they do in the US; it's illegal to consider race in the placing of African-American children, and it's being challenged there as it's not working. Current research sees delays in the system because social workers are so busy looking for the right match, but we need rigorous imaginative recruitment. That's our real challenge.' In the 1950s and 1960s black children were considered 'unadoptable'. The practice was to match children in terms of physical resemblance, so adopted children should look as if they had been 'born to' their families, but race matches were seen as impractical at a time when many black communitites were socially deprived. In 1965 there was a recruitment drive to find parents willing to transracially adopt. Those who came forward were middle-class, educated, already parents and living in predominantly white areas. By the 1970s there were three factors backing transracial adoption: it was seen as successful, there was a shortage of black adopters and the thinking was that 'permanency' was best. The practice began to be questioned, pushed by The Association of Black Social Workers and Allied Professions, in the Eighties. But transracial adoptions have never stopped. In the early 1980s it was estimated that over 80 per cent of black and ethnic minority adoptions in the UK were transracial. The Adoption and Children Act 2002 (enforced in 2005) was the first legislation in more than 25 years. It most famously gave unmarried and same-sex couples the right to jointly adopt, but it also enshrined the demand that social workers should 'wherever possible' put a child with a family which 'reflects their ethnic origin, cultural background, religion and language'. Speaking on condition of anonymity to social workers from local authorities around England, The Observer found anecdotal evidence that this has left many social workers feeling 'paralysed'. Every one of them agreed they would be 'deeply uncomfortable' with anything but a 'same race' match for a child in their care, even if the child had spent six to 12 months in care. 'I have little confidence white people really can ever understand racism - now there's a pretty big matter right there. Unless you bring me a utopia when everyone is colour blind, then I'm sorry but deep down I think we as a society are nowhere near ready to have successful interracial adoptions,' said one recently qualified man. Another, from one of the handful of authorities actively trying to recruit ethnic minority adoptions, agreed in part but said: 'Our search for families is always having to be balanced by time but there is no point in pushing a child into a new life that may be wrong for them. For some, care may be their best option. We're not taking out a colour chart and matching skin to skin, and sometimes you have to walk away thinking, "Well, that's the best I could do." There are so many backgrounds in some of the children we're seeing now, a lot of East European mixes coming in now.' For 'Chris', now 18, who spent nine years in care, never finding a family is something he finds hard to forgive. 'I had some nice foster carers, some not so bright, but the only one I hated was the one who wasn't white. I was let down. I would have found myself a family if they'd have let me. Now it's like, "Well that was my childhood ... that was shit, wasn't it?" You know, when I was little I didn't care about colour, I still have no colour - outside I do, but inside, no.

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They talk about heritage... you know I'd rather just have had a mum, thanks, black, white or even blue-dotted.' Dr Perlita Harris pulled together the experiences of 57 transracially adopted people, including David, into a book called In Search of Belonging: Reflections by transracially adopted people. She says we need a whole new mindset: 'It's those questions - can we really be colour blind? Being transracially adopted is a complex, challenging, and at times very painful, lifelong experience. These are adoptees who were raised in families who, in the main, took a colour blind approach - we see the child but not the colour. They are just like our other (white) children. 'Too many transracially adopted adults report feeling alienated, displaced and disconnected from their community of origin, unable to speak the language of birth relatives when they do trace them, of internalising the negative racist messages in society, of struggling to understand who they are. The narratives of transracially adopted adults demonstrate unequivocally that love, alone, is simply not enough.' As people such as Lesley Allison fight to give a home to ethnic minority children, boys like Chris live with a deep need for a family, black, white 'or blue-dotted', and transracially adopted adults such as David endure a lifelong struggle for identity. The thing they all have in common is a deep desire to want the best for some of the most vulnerable children in Britain, but not all of them can be right. The waiting game · The US used to have same-race matching, and still does for Native American children. In the mid-1990s, Congress passed the Multi-ethnic Placement Act. Social workers are not allowed to emphasise race or ethnicity when matching children with parents. · There are more than 4,000 British children at any one time in the UK awaiting to be found new families. · Every month an average of 1,200 prospective adopters call the Be My Parent newspaper and website, which advertises children who need families, to ask about children featured there. · More than half of all the children waiting for new families are siblings who need to stay together. Older children, especially boys aged over seven, wait longer than younger girls.

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Document 4: It is selfish to have a surrogate baby - Guardian 31/12/11 http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2011/dec/31/designer-babies-selfish Thousands of children in Britain need loving homes, yet couples are opting to pay for 'rent a womb' designer babies The huge rise in commercial surrogacy services is largely seen as positive by those who argue that having their own biological child is a "right" as opposed to a selfish choice. Off-shore businesses providing egg donors and surrogates are now advertised on the London Underground and in a number of publications aimed at straight single women and couples, lesbians and gay men. This increasing commercialisation of reproduction adds further strain on services tasked with finding homes for the tens of thousands of looked-after children currently languishing in residential care. There is no law to prevent surrogacy in Britain but it is illegal for surrogates to advertise as they do in the US and elsewhere. Surrogacy agreements in the UK are not enforceable. This means that if the intended parents refuse to make an agreed payment to the surrogate or if the surrogate refuses to hand over the baby, the court will not enforce the contract. So why, bearing in mind that surrogacy is expensive and not legally binding in the UK, are growing numbers of potential parents rejecting the options of adopting or fostering and travelling to other countries to buy a pregnancy? There is no question that adoption and fostering is not a straightforward process but then neither is opting for expensive, complicated medical interventions such as IVF and surrogacy. Also, the women who provide the eggs and the wombs for potential parents can find themselves exploited and harmed. The documentary Google Baby, transmitted on Channel 4 earlier this year features a clinic and "surrogacy house" in India, the "rent-a-womb capital of the world". Many of the women having babies for rich westerners have been pimped into surrogacy by their husbands, and are powerless to resist. The women sleep in cramped conditions and are controlled to the point of being told when to eat, drink and sleep. There are serious physical and mental health consequences for both the egg donor and the surrogate, and yet this practice is becoming increasingly normalised. In India hundreds of brokers benefit from reproductive tourism now worth an estimated half a billion dollars a year. There are 350 clinics offering surrogacy around the country. Prices in India for the full service including eggs, drugs, the surrogate and all medical treatment are significantly lower than in Europe or the US, prompting many individuals and couples from Europe to opt for its services. The World Health Organisation is seriously critical of commercialised childbirth, as are many children's charities. Despite the fact that many women enter into a surrogacy contract with their eyes wide open, for many the mental and physical health effects are grim. Once the contract has been signed, the intended parents are able to control behaviour of both the egg donor and the surrogate, such as what they eat, how they exercise and any medication they take.

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NSPCC figures for 2010 show that there were more than 83,000 looked-after children in the UK. However, this figure excludes children in private foster care arrangements and some of those in secure youth justice settings, detention and boarding schools. The number of adoptions in England and Wales in 2010 was 4,472, a decrease of 4.1% since the previous year. Growing up in care is no picnic and can result in significant problems in later life. Care leavers are dramatically over-represented among some of society's most disadvantaged groups. One-fifth are homeless within two years of leaving care; a third of rough sleepers have been in care as children; half of prisoners under the age of 25 are care leavers; and 22% are unemployed shortly after leaving school – three times the national average. They are overrepresented in prostitution, and only 6% – as opposed to more than one-third of the general population – attend university. Looked-after children, particularly those over the age of five, have almost inevitably been traumatised by their experiences of disconnection and need huge amounts of love and care. But the designer baby option, in which women are exploited and another child is born into an over-populated planet, is unethical and selfish.

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Document 5: Qui peut adopter ? http://www.adoption.gouv.fr/Qui-peut-adopter.html

En France, l’adoption est ouverte à toute personne âgée de plus de vingt huit ans (mariée ou non, vivant seule ou en couple) et aux époux (non séparés de corps) mariés depuis plus de deux ans ou âgés tous les deux de plus de vingt huit ans. L’adoption est également possible pour un seul des deux époux, s’il a plus de vingt huit ans et avec l’accord de son conjoint. Toutefois si l’un des époux veut adopter l’enfant de son conjoint, il peut le faire même s’il n’a pas vingt huit ans. Les concubins (union libre) ne peuvent pas adopter ensemble un enfant. L’enfant ne peut être adopté que par un seul des concubins (qui est juridiquement célibataire). Les partenaires d’un pacte civil de solidarité (PACS) sont dans la même situation. Deux personnes doivent être mariées pour adopter ensemble un enfant. En principe, l’adoptant doit avoir au minimum quinze années de plus que l’enfant qu’il veut adopter, sauf s’il s’agit de l’enfant de son conjoint (la différence d’âge minimum exigée n’est alors que de dix ans). Le juge peut accorder des dérogations pour des écarts d’âge plus faibles. Tout candidat à l’adoption (français ou étranger), résidant en France, qui souhaite accueillir en vue de son adoption un pupille de l’Etat ou un enfant étranger doit préalablement obtenir un agrément délivré par le Président du Conseil général après avis d’une commission d’agrément. L’agrément est également exigé en cas d’adoption intrafamiliale, à l’exception de l’adoption de l’enfant de son conjoint Dans ces conditions, l’agrément ne peut être délivré qu’à des candidats mariés ou à des candidats célibataires : • •

Un candidat marié peut adopter conjointement ou seul avec l’autorisation de son conjoint. Un candidat non marié vivant en couple (union libre, concubinage, PACS) est juridiquement célibataire et ne peut donc adopter que seul.

Dans les deux cas, les évaluations sociale et psychologique doivent attester que les conditions d’accueil offertes par le demandeur sur les plans familial, éducatif et psychologique correspondent aux besoins et à l’intérêt d’un enfant adopté et donc prendre en compte la composition du foyer où il sera accueilli. Si le couple marié qui a reçu un agrément conjoint se sépare et que l’un des deux souhaite conserver un agrément ou si un couple non marié se marie et souhaite un agrément conjoint, ils doivent renoncer à l’agrément en cours et demander un nouvel agrément (sans devoir attendre le délai de 30 mois imposé en cas de retrait d’agrément puisqu’il s’agit d’un agrément différent). Dans tous les cas, la situation matrimoniale et les conditions d’accueil étant changées, une réévaluation est nécessaire ainsi qu’un avis de la commission départementale d’agrément.

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Lorsque le projet d’adoption concerne un enfant vivant à l’étranger, les candidats à l’adoption doivent également satisfaire aux conditions légales posées par le pays d’origine de l’enfant. Par exemple, certains pays ne permettent pas l’adoption à des personnes ayant déjà des enfants. Pour adopter un enfant à l’étranger, il faut avoir obtenu l’agrément délivré par le Président du conseil général.

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Document 7: The Adoption and Children Act 2002 - guide to the Act http://www.compactlaw.co.uk/free-legal-information/adoption-law/the-adoption-andchildren-act-2002.html When was the Act Passed? The Adoption and Children Act 2002 received Royal Assent and therefore became law on 7th November 2002. However, the Act finally came into full effect on 30th December 2005. The first stage of the Act dealing with Local Authorities duties to provide an adoption service and support services was implemented in April 2003. The second stage relating to intercountry adoptions came into effect on 1st June 2003 and the third stage relating to Adoption Support Services was implemented on the 31st October 2003. Changes to parental responsibility were implemented on 1st December 2003. The changes to the adopted children register took place on 30th December 2005. What are the Provisions of the Act? To overhaul and modernise the legal framework for domestic and inter-country adoption and in particular to replace provisions of the outdated Adoption Act 1976. To put adoption law in line with the existing provisions of the Children Act 1989 to ensure the child's welfare is the paramount consideration in all decisions relating to adoption. To place a duty on local authorities to maintain an adoption service and provide adoption support services. To provide for adoption orders to be made in favour of single people, married couples and unmarried couples. To introduce a new independent review mechanism for prospective adopters who feel they have been turned down unfairly. To provide a new system for access to information held in adoption agency records and by the Register General about adoptions, which take place after the Act comes into force. To provide additional restrictions on bringing a child into the UK for adoption. To provide restrictions on arranging adoptions and advertising children for adoption. To cut delays in the adoption process by establishing an Adoption and Children Act Register to suggest links between children and approved adopters. To bring in new court rules governing the making of adoption orders and measures requiring the courts to draw up timetables for adoption cases to be heard. Freeing orders are now replaced for "placement orders". To introduce a new special guardianship order for children for whom adoption is not a suitable option but who cannot return to their birth families. To provide that an unmarried father can acquire parental responsibility for his natural child where he and the child's mother register the birth of their child together. (see the children section on the homepage for further information). To introduce arrangements for step-fathers to acquire parental responsibility. What Is The Definition Of An Adoption Agency? This means either a Local Authority or a registered Adoption Society. It does not include adoption agencies abroad. How do the Courts Ensure the Child's Welfare is Paramount? The Act provides a welfare checklist which must be applied by the court and adoption agencies which includes: a) The child's wishes and feelings (having regard to his age and understanding).

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b) The child's particular needs (e.g. physical or educational). c) The effect ceasing to be a member of the original family will have on the child. d) The child's characteristics, such as age, sex and background. e) The harm or risk of harm to the child. (This includes any impairment to the child's health or development as a result of witnessing the ill treatment of another person). f) The relationship of the child with relatives and "other relevant people" (e.g. the benefits to the child of the relationship continuing, the ability of the relatives to provide the child with a secure home). A court may only make an adoption order where it considers that it would be better for a child than making no order. Who Can Apply For an Adoption Order Under the Act? a) Single people. b) Married couples applying jointly. c) Unmarried couples applying jointly (whether of different sexes or the same sex). d) A Step-Parent (provided the child has had his/her home with them for at least six months preceding the application). e) Foster carers (provided the child has had his/her home with them for at least 12 months preceding the application, although they can apply for permission from the court to apply within a shorter period). f) Lesbian and gay couples. g) Others not fitting into the above category (e.g. a partner of the child's parent) - the child must have had his/her home with them for at least three years preceding the application. To be considered as adoptive parents, a "couple" (married or unmarried) would need to prove they have a stable and lasting relationship and that they can provide a loving family environment for a child. There is also a continuing restriction as to age and domicile. Are There Any Conditions Attached to an Adoption Agency Placing a Child for Adoption? If the application is made by a couple (whether married or unmarried), both of them must have been habitually resident in the British Isles for at least one year preceding the application or one of them must have been domiciled in a part of the British Isles. If the adoption is through an adoption agency, the adoption application cannot be lodged until the child has been with the applicants for at least 10 weeks. Either the permission of the birth parents (or if this is not forthcoming) then a "placement order" from the court which would authorise the local authority to place the child with adopters they have selected. Can an Adoption Agency's Decision not to Place a Child for Adoption be Challenged by the Applicants? The Act provides for the establishment of a review procedure in respect of decisions made by adoption agencies regarding adoption. A person in respect of whom a decision has been made regarding adoption will be able to apply to a review panel for a review of the decision. The intention is to give the prospective adopters a right to request a referral to a panel run by an independent organisation where an adoption panel indicates that it is minded to turn down their application to adopt. It is also intended that this independent review mechanism will also be used to review decisions made by adoption agencies concerning the disclosure of protected information held by the agency, where the Agency has a discretion under the Act as to whether to disclose such information.

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What Mechanisms are in Place Under the Act for Adopted Adults, Birth Parents and Others to Obtain Information About the Adoption? The Act introduces new provisions regarding the information that must be kept by: a) Adoption agencies in relation to a person's adoption. b) Information that adoption agencies must disclose to adopted adults on request. ('Protected information') c) Information that courts must release to adopted adults on request. d) Information that adoption agencies may release to adopted adults, birth parents and others. However, these provisions will only apply to adoptions that take place after the Act was implemented. An adopted adult can apply to the appropriate adoption agency for 'protected information' about a person involved in an adoption, such as the adopted person, his birth parents or the adoption social worker. 'Protected information' is defined as any identifying information sought by someone other than the person it is about. It would include names, residential, educational and employment addresses, case records, legal and medical information as well as photographs and audiovisual material. It also includes any information held by an adoption agency which, was obtained by the Register General or any other information that would enable an adopted person to obtain a certified copy of his birth record or any information about an entry in the Adoption Contact Register about the adopted person. Adoption agencies have a discretion to disclose information, which is not 'protected information', to an adult adopter or other persons including the birth parents - e.g. background information about the child's progress. An adoption agency, which discloses information in contravention of the Act commits a criminal offence and will be liable on conviction to a fine. The Act also enables the High Court to order, in exceptional circumstances, that an adoption agency withhold information which might otherwise enable the adopted adult to obtain a certified copy of his/her birth record. The adoption agency is to become the single point of access to identifying information as it is believed that they are the bodies best placed to provide the support and counselling needed. For adoptions that took place before the Act came into force, provisions are made to allow the Secretary of State to introduce measures which would allow adoption support agencies to provide intermediary services to assist adopted adults to obtain information about their adoption and facilitate contact between them and their birth relatives. What Is A Placement Order? This is a court order authorising a Local authority to place a child for adoption with prospective adopters where the child is in care or likely to be taken into care, or has no parent or guardian. If there is a parent or guardian of the child they must have consented to the child being placed for adoption, unless the court is satisfied that their consent should be dispensed with because it would be in the welfare of the child to do so. Placement orders can be revoked on the application of any person, but if that person is not a local authority or the child themselves, the permission of the court is required to make the application and the child must not have been placed for adoption by the local authority. Once a Placement Order is made parental responsibility for that child will pass to the local authority until the child is placed with the prospective adopters at which time parental responsibility will pass to them. Any parent or guardian or relative who wishes to have contact to the child can only do so by applying for a contact order under the Act.

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What Are The Adopted Children Register And The Adoption Contact Register? The Adopted Children Register is to be a register of adoptions taking place in England & Wales and will be kept in the General Register Office, but the Register itself is not open to public inspection or search. However, the index of the Register is available for inspection and anyone can apply on payment of a fee for a certified copy of an entry in the register relating to a child who has reached 18. An adopted person can apply to obtain a copy of their birth certificate but the Local Authority must make the application. The Adopted Contact Register is also a register to be kept at the General register office and again the register itself is not available for public inspection and search but it is possible to apply for certified copies of entries in the register. The register will contain information about adopted persons who have given notice expressing a wish to make contact with their relatives and who have reached 18. What Are The New Provisions On Overseas Adoption? The Act allows arrangements to be put in place for the recognition in England and Wales of overseas adoption (known as 'inter-country adoptions'). The UK has recently ratified (put into effect) the 1993 'Hague Convention on the Protection of Children and Co-operation in respect of Inter-Country Adoption' (The Convention). This provides for: Establishing safeguards to ensure that inter-country adoptions take place in the best interests of the child. Establishing a system of co-operation between countries who have signed the Convention to prevent the abduction, sale or traffic in children. To recognise inter-country adoptions in the countries who have signed the Convention (see www.hcch.net for a full list of those countries). The countries that have signed the Convention must ensure, amongst other things: That any child from their country is adoptable. Consider whether they should be placed with adoptive parents within their country. Consider whether adoption overseas is in the child's best interests. Ensure that any consent by the natural parents has been given freely and that they understand the effect of their consent. Ensure that no payment has been made to obtain the consent and that the mother has given consent after the birth of the child. The authorities in the country where the child is to be brought must ensure that the prospective adopters are eligible and suitable to adopt, that they have consented and that the child is authorised to enter and live permanently in that country. No unsupervised contact is to take place between the prospective adopters and the natural parents until the above requirements have been met. This is to avoid the natural parents being pressurised by the prospective adopters. To apply for an overseas adoption, applicants must first apply to the central authority in the State in which they reside who will decide if they are eligible and suitable to adopt (This is the Department for Children, Schools and Families). The central authority will then prepare a report for the State where the child resides which will set out the family, medical and social background of the applicants and their ability to undertake an inter-country adoption. The report will also set out the characteristics of the type of child the applicants could care for (in the UK this report will usually be undertaken by a Local Authority or an accredited adoption society). The State in which the child resides must then prepare a report about: The child's adoptability

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Family and social background of the child Whether the child has any special needs Whether any consent to adoption has been given freely and Whether the adoption is in the best interests of the child. Once these requirements are satisfied a child can be transferred to the State where the prospective adopters reside to allow the legal adoption process to take place. In the UK the adoption must then be registered at the Office of the Registrar General for England and Wales. An application can be made for the child to receive citizenship from the date of adoption. It is an offence for parents or prospective adopters to advertise their wish to adopt or for anyone other than an adoption agency to advertise and arrange adoptions. The penalty for this offence is 3 months imprisonment and/or a fine of £5,000. Those who illegally bring a child into the UK to adopt will face a 12-month prison sentence and/or an unlimited fine. What Is A Special Guardianship? This is a guardian who has been appointed by the court in adoption proceedings or in any family proceedings where a question arises with respect to the welfare of the child. The Special Guardian then acquires parental responsibility for the child and can usually exercise parental responsibility to the exclusion of any other person with parental responsibility, (apart from another Special Guardian). A Special Guardian must be over 18 and must not be the parent of the child. Those who can apply to be Special Guardians are: a) Any guardian of the child b) A person in whose favour a residence order has been made c) A local authority foster parent with whom the child has lived for at least one year d) Any person who the child has lived with for at least 3 years e) Any person who has the consent of someone with a residence order or parental responsibility for the child, or a local authority (if a care order has been made) to apply. What Support Services Must Local Authorities Provide? All Local Authorities must provide as a minimum, the following adoption services: a) Counselling, advice and information b) Financial support c) Support groups for adoptive families d) Assistance with contact arrangements between adopted children and their birth relatives e) Therapeutic services for adopted children f) Help to ensure the continuance of adoptive relationships g) Provision of an adoptive support services advisor and adoption support plans for adoptive families h) Providing an assessment of the needs of adopted children and their families for adoption support services. What Are The Changes That The Act Makes To The Children Act 1989? 1. A father who is registered on a child's birth certificate will acquire parental responsibility. (This only applies to births registered on or after 1st December 2003). 2. A step-parent can acquire parental responsibility if both the natural parents enter into an agreement with the step-parent to give the step-parent parental responsibility or if the court makes an order on the step-parent applying for parental responsibility.

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3. The restriction on foster parents making applications for residence, contact parental responsibility orders etc unless the child has been with them for 3 years has now been reduced to one year. 4. The meaning of "harm" for the purposes of care and supervision orders has now been extended to include the child suffering impairment due to 'seeing or hearing the ill-treatment of another' (e.g. domestic violence involving the parents). 5. Residence orders made in favour of any person who is not a parent or guardian of the child can continue in force until the child reaches eighteen.

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Document 6: Les chiffres clés de l'adoption en France http://www.lemoneymag.fr/v5/fiche/s_Fiche_v5/0,5382,13949,00.html

Les demandes • • • • • •

• • • •

Plus de 10 000 demandes d'adoption déposées chaque année, chiffre qui a presque doublé en 15 ans. 8 000 agréments délivrés par an, les autres renoncent ou se voient opposer un refus. En moyenne, il faut 9 mois pour obtenir un agrément. La validité de l'agrément étant de 5 ans, 25 000 candidats agréés étaient dans l'attente d'un enfant en 2006. Les deux tiers des candidats détenteurs d'un agrément parviennent à adopter. L'autre tiers abandonne, a un enfant biologique et voit son délai expirer. 9 fois sur 10, les candidatures à l'adoption sont déposées par un couple. En cas de célibat, c'est presque toujours d'une femme, de statut cadre. Les demandes masculines sont rarissimes. Pour 12% c'est un choix car ils pourraient tout à fait avoir des enfants naturellement. 12% des adoptants sont devenus stériles après avoir eu au moins un enfant. Pour 7 sur 10 des couples candidats, l'adoption est la seule solution, ayant dû renoncer à l'assistance médicale à la procréation, inopérante ou trop contraignante. La future mère adoptante a en moyenne 38,5 ans.

Les enfants adoptés • • • • • •

• •

En 2005, sur les 5 000 enfants adoptés en France, près de 4 000 sont nés à l'étranger. Les enfants nés en France sont placés pour 57% pendant leur 1ère année et 9% après leur 7ème anniversaire. Seuls 800 des 2500 pupilles de la nation ont été adoptés en 2005. La France est le 2ème pays au monde en nombre d'enfants étrangers adoptés, derrière les Etats-Unis (plus de 20 000 par an). Lors de leur adoption, les enfants ont en moyenne 2 ans et 10 mois. Mais la fourchette s'étend entre 6 mois en Corée du Sud et jusqu'à 7 ans au Brésil. Autant de garçons que de filles, mais avec des disparités notables : les enfants originaires de Chine sont pratiquement toujours des filles alors que ceux originaires de Russie et de Thaïlande sont des garçons. Il y a 25 ans, 4 sur 5 des enfants étrangers adoptés venaient d'Asie, surtout de Corée du Sud. Actuellement : 27% sont nés en Asie, 20% en Afrique, 26% en Amérique et 20% en Europe.

Source : Ined 2007

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