Climate Change and Marine Conservation: Actual Status and Project Categorization

For WISE - Wealthy Individuals, Social Entrepreneurs

Applied Research Seminar: Sustainable Development Track 2nd year Master in Development Studies Student group project by: Wendy Paratian and Claudie Lacharité

Geneva, January 2011

ABSTRACT This research project on climate change and marine conservation aims to provide our partner WISE (Wealthy Individuals, Social Entrepreneurs) a better understanding of the role of marine conservation in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies from a critical scientific point of view. As the link between climate change and marine conservation is relatively new, both secondary research and primary research were needed in order to provide a comprehensive up-to-date reading of research project in this area. In order to have a better understanding of what is currently being done in the field including the main actors involved in climate change mitigation/adaptation using marine conservation approaches, this research also led to the identification and categorization of projects in this new area in order to provide WISE with guidelines for concrete funding opportunities. This research project therefore aims to provide our partner with tools needed for an indepth understanding of the issue and the financing possibilities regarding this new thematic of climate change and marine conservation. This project will hopefully enable WISE to advise its donors towards marine conservation financing opportunities for climate change mitigation/adaptation.

STUDENT BIOGRAPHY Ms. Claudie LACHARITE is a second year Master Degree student in Development Studies following the Sustainable Development track at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva. After obtaining a BSc in PoliticalCommunication and a Minor in Law at the Université de Montréal, in her home town, she worked for more than 5 years in the political and communication-marketing spheres. She is currently working at Sustainable Finance Geneva (part-time) and has chosen WISE’s project as she will undertake her dissertation for the Master Degree on ―How the alarmist IO discourse on global water crisis could create some issues on the field (Case study: Middle East)‖. Ms. Wendy PARATIAN is a second year Master Degree student in Development Studies following the Sustainable Development track at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva. She obtained her BSc in Ecology and Tourism Management at the University of Oxford Brookes in the United Kingdom. She is currently working at the International Trade Centre as a project assistant (part-time) and has chosen WISE’s project as she will undertake her Master Degree dissertation on ―the creation of a Marine Protected Area in the Chagos Archipelago‖, located in the Indian Ocean, a region where she originally comes from. This research report is the sole responsibility of the student groups. Neither the Graduate Institute nor faculty members co-sign nor bear responsibility for the final research report.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The aim of the present research project is to provide our partner WISE (Wealthy Individuals, Social Entrepreneurs) with a better understanding of the marine conservation potential to mitigate and adapt to climate change, with a special focus on the financing opportunity of such marine conservation projects. In order to better grasp the link between climate change and marine conservation, it was important to have a better understanding of the situation. Climate change is arguably the main global environmental issues facing humanity. Nowadays, world leaders recognize that urgent and adequate mitigation/adaptation strategies are needed in order to reduce and avoid future disastrous effects of climate change. When the issue of climate change started to ring alarm bells at an international level for a pressing need of action, solutions were initially being explored on land, through major carbon sinks such as tropical forest. The potential of marine conservation as a tool to mitigate and adapt to climate change was overlooked since the emergence of the climate change issue, despite the fact that the ocean is a highly significant element of the carbon cycle and that it is one of the planet’s most important carbon sinks. Nevertheless, although little attention was given to the marine realm a few years ago, times are changing: it is now recognized by the international community that the protection of oceans is highly relevant for climate change mitigation/adaptation. Significant changes were observed through countries’ ratification of International Conventions such as Nagoya’s (2010) or of International Declarations such as Manado’s Ocean Declaration (2009), which illustrates the international recognition of the inextricable link between people, ocean and climate. In this regard, marine-based solutions to tackle climate change could be combined with and potentially be valued as more important than land-based solutions. Some ecosystems such as mangroves forest or sea-grass beds have higher CO2 absorption and sequestration capacities than tropical forest in terms of unit per area and time (Tamelander, 2010), for example. The field of research linking the climate change issue with marine conservation is new, few researches have gathered sufficient data for a comprehensive overall picture, and there are difficulties to communicate and exchange information within global and local actors. This report is therefore scientifically relevant as it tries to highlight those issues and fill this gap by facilitating access to information and potential actors. In order to construct this report from a scientific perspective, we went through an exhaustive literature review and we interviewed two leading experts of this field. The key findings of this report are: 

There is a causality relationship between climate change and marine conservation, as the ocean sustains life by generating oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide and regulating climate and temperature. In this regard, if local marine

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ecosystems are well managed, they can restore or maintain the role of the ocean in regard to climate change. 

Climate change is affecting marine and coastal ecosystems through various ways: increase of sea temperature, sea level rise, oceans physical changes, loss of sea ice, increasing atmospheric CO2 leading to oceans acidification, altered freshwater supply and quality, increase ultraviolet radiation, have negative effects on species and increase frequency and intensity of extreme weather events.



In the marine realm, climate change is already impacting upon the ability of marine and coastal ecosystems to provide food, income, protection, cultural identity, recreation and carbon sequestration and capture. Therefore, efficient marine conservation projects should be implemented to respond to the effects of climate change and guarantee the ecological, economical and socio-cultural goods and services provided by the marine ecosystem.

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In recent decades marine reserves have been established throughout the world as a management tool for compensating the effects of overfishing on coastal marine stock, for biodiversity conservation, and shoreline protection, but nowadays it is also considered as an effective tool to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

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Mitigation through marine conservation can be done either through storing CO2, to prevent the loss of carbon that is already present in the vegetation and soil, or through capturing CO2, by sequestering further carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in natural ecosystems.

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Adaptation through marine conservation can be done by creating sufficient space for change, such as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), by creating appropriate space by reducing all non-climate stresses or through Ecosystem based Adaptation (EbA) strategies.

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EbA is type of adaptation concept, using biodiversity and ecosystem services to help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change. Strategies such as shoreline protection, sustenance of local livelihoods and re-enforcement of mitigation efforts can benefit local communities.

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According to our research, we were able to catalog the marine conservation projects based on their climate change related objectives under five general categories: Scientific, Education and Lobbying, Mitigation, Adaptation, and Mitigation/Adaptation.

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Marine conservation projects linked to climate change involve many actors and are spread all around the world, but we can notice a strong emphasis of marine conservation projects in the tropical area.

This research project therefore attempts to provide WISE with the tools that it may need to gain an in-depth understanding of the issues and financing possibilities regarding this new area. The analysis of what is currently being done on the field, and the project categorization based on their climate change related objectives will hopefully provide an array of concrete solutions that will enable WISE to advise its donors towards marine conservation financing opportunities for climate change mitigation/adaptation.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We are thankful to our teacher Mr. Jean-Louis Arcand, our assistant Ms. Marlyne Sahakian, our supervisor Mr. Pascal van Griethuysen whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final level of our report enabled us to develop a better understanding of the subject. We also wish to thank the following experts who accepted to meet us in order to share their knowledge and passion on the subject of climate change and marine conservation: - Mr. Ronald Menzel, Director and Founding Member of the Antinea Foundation. - Mr. Jerker Tamelander, Manager Oceans and Climate Change, IUCN.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Project contextualization……………………………………………………………… Research objectives…………………………………………………………………… Research questions……………………………………………………………………. Methodology.........………………………………………………………………………

p.1 p.1 p.1 p.1

I.

The link between climate change and marine conservation………..…. p.2 1. The climate change issue: sources and effects……………………… p.2 2. The concept of marine conservation………………………………….. p.6 3. The causality relationship between climate change and marine conservation……………………………………………………….......... p.7 a. The effects of climate change on marine ecosystems………. p.8 b. Potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation through marine conservation…………………………………………….. p.12 i. Mitigation: increasing CO2 capture and storage capacity through marine conservation…………………………. p.12 ii. Adaptation to the negative effects of climate change through marine conservation..................................... p.13

II.

Project categorization and financing opportunities ………………….. 1. Analysis of the Stakeholder and needs assessment grid……………

p.16 p.16

Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………

p.21

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………. p. 24 LIST OF FIGURES: Figure 1: The CO2 concentration increase in the atmosphere……………..………… Figure 2: Carbon Cycle Fluxes & Stocks……………………………………………….. Figure 3: Sea Levels Anomalies............................................................................... Figure 4: Oceans Acidification.................................................................................. Figure 5: A Global Map of Human Impacts to Marine Ecosystems…………………. Figure 6: Mangroves Location ………………………………………………………….. Figure 7: Sea-grass beds Location .......................................................................... Figure 8: Coral Reefs at Risk ……………………………………………………………

p.4 p.5 p.10 p.10 p.16 p.18 p.18 p.18

LIST OF TABLES: Table 1: The effects of climate change on marine ecosystems……………………… p. 9 Table 2: Marine Conservation Project Categorization Related to Climate Change... p. 20 ANNEX I: Stakeholder and needs assessment grid

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Project Contextualization: This research project is established in partnership with WISE (Wealthy Individuals, Social Entrepreneurs), an organization which guides and provides expert advice to donors who want to fulfill, strategically and efficiently, their philanthropic aspirations. WISE is always looking for new development or sustainable projects to submit to its clients or respond to their own specific demands. Therefore, observing the emergence of a new area of study and policy-making linking climate change and marine conservation, as well as requests from donors, WISE mandated our team to look further in this new field to better understand its multiple aspects.

Research Objectives: The objectives of this research are to better understand the role of marine conservation in the climate change mitigation and adaptation from a scientific critical point of view, highlight the main processes and issues involved, and identify the main project categories. Ultimately, this report would be used as a guide to help WISE to better understand the link between climate change and marine conservation, as well as to identify the opportunities that exist for financing marine projects aiming at the mitigation and adaptation of climate change.

Research Questions: In order to better explain the role of marine conservation in the climate change mitigation and adaptation, we first explore the existing links between climate change and marine conservation. After addressing the scientific explanations of this interdependent relationship, we analyze how this scientific knowledge is implemented in the field through different marine conservation projects and programs.

Methodology: The methodology used for this research project is initially an exhaustive and critical literature review on the subjects of climate change and marine conservation. Because climate change and marine conservation are complex and broad phenomenon, it was necessary to look at those two concepts separately before looking at the links between them. Once this causality relationship is clearly exposed, the role of marine conservation in the climate change mitigation and adaptation can then be addressed. As initially suggested, a detailed stakeholder mapping and needs assessment was difficult to provide. Due to the fact that this issue is an emerging one and that the majority of the projects are underway or at an early stage, information, data and reports are few or nonexistent. Therefore, instead of a detailed mapping, we will establish a general categorization of marine conservation projects, based on their climate change related objectives.

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Due to the recent nature of this issue, a primary research was needed to enhance information that was not present in the literature, especially regarding actions and realities on the field. In this regard, interviews with experts were conducted. We first met with Mr. Ronald Menzel, Director and Founding Member of the Antinea Foundation, as an actor working on this issue, he gave us relevant information on the realities of the fiel and on the complexity of the problematic and how it affects the projects’ planning and management. Mr. Menzel then introduced us to the IUCN expert Mr. Jerker Tamelander, Manager of Ocean and Climate Change under the IUCN Global Marine Programme. This interview was highly relevant as IUCN is one of the leading environmental organizations worlwide.

I.

The link between climate change and marine conservation

The Earth is the only planet in the solar system, known until today, which harbors life. This is due, in part, to our privileged position in respect to the sun, but also due to our atmosphere composition and the existence of liquid surface water (Nelleman et al., 2009). Indeed, scientists acknowledge that the ocean is a unique and vital element of our planet. It covers 70% of the earth and its biodiversity is so rich that it includes almost 90% of the planet’s biomass (Herr and Galland, 2009). From a scientific point of view, knowing that the ocean and the atmosphere were linked since the origin of life on earth through continuous interchanges, the re-emergence of this relationship in the climate change debate seems logical. By analyzing the scientific literature on the climate change issue, one could observe, during the last decade, the emergence of a new area of study focusing more on the role of the ocean; not only as an ecosystem that will also suffer from the effects of climate change, but as part of the solution for this issue. The terms ―ocean‖ and ―marine ecosystems‖ are mentioned only a few times in the different political agreements, protocols and conventions on climate change, but their concrete recognition by the international governance community through their actions and funding is still far from illustrative of the importance given to these areas by the scientific community. The reality is that the majority of the projects and programs financed by the international community are focused on land areas. By studying in-depth the role of marine conservation in climate change mitigation and adaptation, this report will hopefully help to shed some light on the potential for future funding opportunities. In order to better understand this new approach linking climate change to the ocean and more precisely to marine conservation, we will, in the next section, briefly explain the scientific phenomenon of climate change and define the concept of marine conservation, and as a second step, we will identify and analyze the causality relationship linking these two concepts.

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1. The climate change issue: sources and effects Since Arrhenius’ calculation in the end of the 19 th century and following the European and American industrial revolutions, different bodies of the scientific community have gathered data and important core findings highlighting a significant rising in the Earth’s temperature. Scientists recognized the increase of the greenhouse effect as the main cause of so-called global warming. They also specified the anthropogenic nature of this increase, and identified changes in climate patterns as the main effects of global warming. As Stern mentioned in his 2006 report, although a small minority of scientists are still arguing on the evidence of the anthropogenic nature of the climate change phenomenon, a strong consensus exists in the scientific community. This consensus was first expressed in the well-known Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report in 1988, but also through many public statements of the different national scientific academies, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and diverse United Nations agency research groups. The IPCC played an important role in bringing this scientific concern to the international governance agenda and to the public. Highlighted by Stern (2006), the international political community also recognized the climate change issue as ―a serious and urgent‖ one by signing in 1992, the United Nation Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). From then, research and discussions focused on a better understanding of the sources and impacts of this phenomenon in order to design responses and find concrete solutions. The UNFCCC established 3 important definitions: ―Climate change: a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods. Climate system: the totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and geosphere and their interactions. Adverse effects of climate change: changes in the physical environment or biota resulting from climate change which have significant deleterious effects on the composition, resilience or productivity of natural and managed ecosystems or on the operation of socio-economic or on human health and welfare.‖ (Article 1, UNFCCC, 1992, p.3)

From these definitions, we understand that human kind, the climate and the Earth-ecosystem are closely interdependent. As mentioned previously, the main source of climate change, identified by the scientists, is global warming. Consequently, to avoid the negative and dangerous effects of climate change, the international community, based on scientific recommendations, declared in the Copenhagen Agreement the importance of keeping global warming at the level of less than 2°C above the pre-industrial temperatures.

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To reach this goal, the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere needs to be stabilized well below 450 part per million (ppm). A priori, the greenhouse effect is a natural process where greenhouse gases -ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons and carbon dioxide- trap the radiated necessary for keeping the Earth’s temperature warm enough to support life (Rahmstorf, 2010). Before the industrial time, the atmospheric CO 2 concentration was stabilized around 280 ppm for the last 700 000 years. According to the Figure 1 below, since 1850, the atmospheric CO2 concentration has risen to over 380 ppm (Rhamstorf, 2010). In fact, the atmospheric CO2 concentration is now increasing by about 2 ppm per year, 10 000 times faster than natural geological change (Hansen, Blue Planet’s Conference, October 2010). Figure 1: The CO2 concentration increase in the atmosphere

(Source : CO2 now.org website)

These observations confirmed the anthropogenic nature of the greenhouse effect’s imbalance which consequently impacts upon the carbon cycle. Illustrated by the Figure 2, the carbon cycle is an equilibrium between the fluxes of carbon through the different biochemical and geochemical exchanges and the storage capacity of the natural reservoirs which are the atmosphere, the lithosphere, the biosphere and the hydrosphere. According to the above NASA’s quote, the human socio-economic activities, depending mainly on the fossil energy, are now disturbing this equilibrium. ―In addition to the natural fluxes of carbon through the Earth system, anthropogenic (human) activities, particularly fossil fuel burning and deforestation, are also releasing carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. When we mine coal and extract oil from the Earth’s crust, and then burn these fossil fuels for transportation, heating, cooking, electricity, and manufacturing, we are effectively moving carbon more rapidly into the atmosphere than is being

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removed naturally through the sedimentation of carbon, ultimately causing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations to increase. Also, by clearing forests to support agriculture, we are transferring carbon from living biomass into the atmosphere‖ (The Carbon Cycle; The Human Role, Earth Observatory, NASA website)

Figure 2: Carbon Cycle Fluxes & Stocks

(source: NASA website)

As mentioned earlier, CO2 exchanges and storage take place within four different natural reservoirs through short and long cycles. It is important to mention that those reservoirs don’t have the same storage capacity. Thus, the atmosphere is the smaller reservoir with the equivalent of 810 billion tons of carbon (Gt), when it contained less than 600 Gt at the beginning of the industrial era (IPSL, 2006). The biosphere reservoir is ranked second with a total of 2 300 Gt stored in plants and animals through photosynthesis (IPSL, 2006). The third one, the hydrosphere, is very important for two reasons. First, by its size: 38 500 Gt, this reservoir contains 47 times more carbon than the atmosphere (IPSL, 2006). And also as it plays an important role in balancing the carbon cycle through its ability of absorption, and dissolution of CO2 into its waters (IPSL, 2006). Finally, the fourth and largest reservoir, the lithosphere, contains 20 million Gt of carbon, 25,000 times greater than the atmosphere (IPSL, 2006). Fortunately, it is naturally the most stable one that emits fewer emissions. Natural exchanges with the atmosphere were historically very limited in the short term, being measured rather over millions of years. But this situation changed when human started to exploit fossil fuels, representing 5,000 Gt of carbon sequestered in this reservoir. To stabilize this disturbance of the carbon cycle and avoid dangerous and irreversible consequences of climate change on human beings and the Earth-ecosystem, the international community is implementing solutions and mechanisms focusing on one hand, to diminish the global CO2 emissions, and on the other hand, to increase the CO2 5

capture capacity of the Earth-ecosystem. In addition to promoting the development of new renewable energies and establishing national targets for CO2 emissions, the international community committed itself in increasing the storage capacity of the biosphere reservoir by stopping deforestation and encouraging reforestation (REDD) and by the creation of protected areas to allow ecosystems to maintain their CO 2 absorption capacity (UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, Copenhagen Agreement). Decision-makers have oriented their actions mainly at the level of the biosphere area, but recognized at the same time the importance of the hydrosphere in the carbon cycle. The scientific community is now trying to demonstrate the potential of the ocean as a carbon sink to mitigate climate change and the effective implementation of the conservationist approach to the marine ecosystems for climate change adaptation.

2. The concept of marine conservation Before going further in explaining the link between climate change and marine conservation, it is important to specify the meaning of the expression ―marine conservation‖ because both words have been used in different contexts and no clear definition was elaborated in any international agreements. Marine ecosystems, marine environment, marine area, marine zoning, all these expressions are used sometimes as an over-arching term, and sometimes in relation to specific ecosystem like coastal habitats, defined by an ecosystem-based approach or by an economic activities-based approach. For the purpose of this report, we will refer to this term using the mainstream ecosystem-based interpretation that came out of the IUCN, WWF, UNEP and Convention on Biological Diversity documentations. Therefore, ―marine‖ encompasses all the different types of ecosystems existing in the ocean (salty waters): coastal areas, estuaries, salt marshes, sea grass beds, mangroves forests, coral reefs, hydrothermal vents, seamounts and deep sea (CBD, 2010). ―Conservation‖ had also different interpretations and usages. Even if this word is broadly used through many conventions, agreements and reports, an official definition is not established. After a literature review, one way to define ―conservation‖ is in opposition to the term ―preservation‖, although these two words are often confused. In the modern literature, conservation is almost equivalent to sustainable development. Therefore, conservation means a sustainable management of the area, within social and economic constraints, taking into account the needs for goods and services of the concerned population without depleting natural ecosystems diversity and acknowledging the complex dynamic of biological systems. In other terms, conservation recognizes the ecological and socio-economic roles of the natural area and allows for human activities that are respectful of the ecosystem capacity. ―Preservation‖, in contrast to ―conservation‖, does not allow human interference or any type of natural resources extraction. The objective is to protect and maintain the area as natural as possible. From those interpretations, we can conclude that conservation and 6

preservation are simply two different area-management strategies aiming at different objectives. So, coming back to our initial expression of ―marine conservation‖, this leads us to a general definition: a sustainable management strategy that applies to different types of marine ecosystems, in salty waters or oceans. Mr. Tamelander from IUCN highlighted during our interview (November 2010), if we are addressing the question of marine conservation linked to climate change in a general perspective, it would be more appropriate to use the expression of marine management, because the conservationist approach is implemented in different ways and some marine conservation projects also include a preservation aspect. For example, nowadays, an important guiding tool for marine management is the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) which are classified by IUCN under different categories depending on their management objectives. However for the purpose of this report, we will keep using the term ―marine conservation‖ as a general concept, synonymous to marine management. As mentioned by Mr. Tamelander (November, 2010), the scientific role of the ocean in climate patterns and in the carbon cycle has been known by the scientists for many decades. However, the knowledge on the diversity of the different marine ecosystems and on their behaviors in reaction to human activities such as pollution and climate change is still at a very low level compared to the knowledge that scientists have gathered on land-ecosystems. But thanks to new technologies and to scientific networks, this situation is changing. A new field of research emerged in the 1990s focusing precisely on marine conservation: ―Marine conservation biology is a new science. It draws on a diversity of longstanding scientific disciplines — oceanography, marine ecology, biogeography, veterinary medicine, zoology, botany, genetics, toxicology, fisheries biology, anthropology, economics, political science, ethics and law — to create a new multidisciplinary synthesis aimed at protecting, restoring and sustainably using marine biodiversity.‖ (Marine Conservation Biology Institute website)

3. The causality relationship between climate change and marine conservation As the scientific community maintains, the ocean, the atmosphere and human being are closely linked as the ocean sustains life by generating oxygen, absorbing carbon dioxide and regulating climate and temperature (Hale et al., 2009). Additionally, the ocean responds to human basic needs, as a provider for economic goods and services. The causality relationship linking these three components (oceans, atmosphere and human kind) can be described as a circular and bi-directional relationship, opposed to a linear and unidirectional one. Here is a simplified example to illustrate this interaction: human activities have an effect on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, mainly via the carbon cycle, which results in an increase of the ocean’s temperature. However, 7

the warming of sea-waters alters ocean currents and disturbs the regional climate and weather patterns, leading to an increase in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events that could destroy human habitats and put its populations at risk. However, this is only one perspective of this interdependent relationship, as the ocean plays a fundamental role in influencing our climate and is inherently linked to the atmosphere through different levels of interactions, such as heat storage, transportation of heat around the globe, evaporation, freezing and thawing in polar regions and gas (including CO2) exchange and storage (Herr and Galland, 2009). A similar kind of interdependence is also relevant between the biosphere, atmosphere and human kind. In reality, this relationship seems to be more obvious to the international community, as more concrete actions have already been taken. Indeed, the conservationist approach on the land-area—and more specifically for forests which are a natural carbon sink—has strongly been promoted through international agreements as one of the main tools for climate change mitigation by reducing the CO 2 atmospheric concentration. In other words, a better sustainable management of the forest-ecosystems is seen as an efficient solution for climate change mitigation. Taking into account that the ocean storage capacity is over 15 times higher than the biosphere reservoir, and adding the fact that the rate of loss of marine ecosystems is much higher than any other ecosystem on the planet (in some instances, it can be up to four times the one of rainforests), a new area of study has emerged addressing marine conservation as another efficient solution for climate change mitigation and adaptation (Herr and Galland, 2009). The experts from this emerging field are attempting to raise awareness among the international community understand that we cannot ignore the marine ecosystems in the climate change debate. First, because the marine ecosystems are already suffering from the impacts of climate change, and second because of the important role that the ocean plays in the global climate regulation and the gas storage and exchange cycle. Their recommendation is simple: as applied since many years for the land-ecosystems, management strategies could also be implemented in marine areas, taking into account its ecosystems’ specificities.

a. The effects of climate change on marine ecosystems Marine ecosystems are rich in biodiversity and provide productivity to support people all around the world. These ecosystems include coral reefs, mangrove forests, sea-grass beds and vast pelagic—open water—systems (Hansen, 2003). These fragile ecosystems are threatened in many ways, such as through pollution, tourism, overharvest of fisheries, other extractive uses, invasive species, and on top of all t5that, threats posed by climate change (Hansen, 2003). Indeed, climate change is affecting marine and coastal ecosystems through various ways: sea level rise; oceans physical changes; loss 8

of sea ice; oceans acidification; altered freshwater supply and quality (Hale et al., 2009). In order to better understand the effects of climate change on marine ecosystems, the causes and consequences of the main effects are summarized and described in Table 1.

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Table 1: The effects of climate change on marine ecosystems Effects of Climate Change on Marine Ecosystems

Causes/Consequences

Increasing sea temperature

-Even if atmospheric CO2 concentration were stabilized today, oceans would continue to warm for another century. -That will be a challenge for the species that rely on the thermal stability of the world’s oceans. -Increasing of water temperature (1 to 2°C) can lead to coral bleaching. -While higher ocean temperatures may increase growth rates of some fish, the nutrient supplies reduction due to warming usually limit their growth.

Sea level rise

-Due to thermal expansion of water and the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, the sea level is predicted to rise between 20 and 80 cm over the next century. -This will affect intertidal and coastal ecosystem (will alter the availability of light; and the patterns of water movement). -Rapid sea level rise will likely be the greatest climate change challenge to mangrove ecosystems, as stable mangrove forests require stable sea levels..

Extreme weather events (the link between storms, hurricanes, cyclones, El Niño/Southern Oscillations (ENSO)) and climate change is not well established)

-If such events occur, it will increase the importance of mangroves and coral reefs which buffer coastlines against storm surge and high winds. -Increased frequency and intensity of storms can damage the marine ecosystems. -Predicted increase in major climatic events such as ENSO may have drastic effects on fish stocks especially when combined with overfishing; coral bleaching etc. -By 2020 it is suggested that coral bleaching event of 1997-98 ENSO will become ―commonplace‖.

Increasing atmospheric CO2 leading to ocean acidification

-Oceans acidification, a direct result of rising carbon dioxide levels, will have major effects on marine ecosystems, with possible adverse consequences on fish stocks. -The ocean have become more acidic (reduces pH) in the past 200 years, because of chemical changes caused by increasing amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolving in seawater -This pH reduction increases oceans acidity and makes it harder for many ocean creatures to form shells and skeletons from calcium carbonate. It weakens the shells and slows the growth rates of marine invertebrates (such as the coral communities and certain types of plankton which are at the base of the food chain). -If global emissions continue to rise on current trends, the pH will be declining by 0.15 units if the carbon dioxide levels double (to 560 ppm) relative to preindustrial level, or by 0.3 units if the CO2 levels reaches 840 ppm.

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

Effects on species

-UV radiation generally increases with stratospheric ozone depletion, which is linked to climate change. -UV radiation penetrates deeper into the waters. -The UV radiation compiled with increase of temperature stress organisms, such as coral, sea-grass photosynthetic ability etc. -Loss of ecosystems such as sea-grass beds, coral reefs, mangroves can have significant impacts on the species relying on these ecosystems (loss of food, habitat). -Thriving of alien species affecting endemic species. -The sex of turtle species is dependent on temperature - higher temperatures of 1.5°C lead to more female; therefore, the 2°C increase in temperature expected will perhaps eliminate male offspring.

(Compiled from: Hansen, 2003; Stern et al., 2006)

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According to the above Table 1, we can see how the combined impacts of sea level anomalies (see Figure 3), ocean acidification (see Figure 4), warmer sea temperatures, and other human-induced stresses make coral reef ecosystems (see Figure 8, p.18) and other marine ecosystems vulnerable to collapse. According to research done in the field, it has been proven that an increasing of sea surface temperature and concentration of CO2 in seawater (resulting from water acidification) can lead to catastrophic bleaching, as it decreases the availability of the carbonate ions required to build coral skeletons, which results in major reductions in the capacity of corals to calcify and grow (Hansen, 2003; GBO 3, 2010). Figure 3: Sea Level Anomalies

Figure 4: Ocean Acidification

(Retrieved from Nelleman et al., 2009, p.30)

(Retrieved from Nelleman et al., 2009, p.33)

In this regard, Table 1 indicates how crucial it is to consider and plan for the impacts of climate change, in marine conservation efforts today (Hansen, 2003). By taking into account the above effects of climate change on marine ecosystems, the importance of developing programs for ecosystem adaptation appears as a priority. However, ecosystem adaptation is just one side of climate change response. As explained earlier, the role played by the ocean on climate and in the carbon cycle is essential. This lead us to the importance of considering the potential of marine conservation to mitigate climate change. In this regard, we will address, in the next section, the potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation through marine conservation.

b. Potential for climate change mitigation and adaptation through marine conservation As seen in the previous section, climate change is forecasted to alter the ocean environment in many significant ways, such as higher water temperatures, shifting ocean 11

currents, ocean acidification and elevated sea levels. But, it has to be taken into consideration that some alternations seem less certain than others, and the magnitude of some of these alternations will depend on the rate and extent of climate change (Zinn et al., 2007). Nevertheless, it is clear that there is an immediate need for a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions to restraint the climate change progression, decrease its effects and finally avoid catastrophic consequences in the long term. The position of the scientists is clear: without a strong mitigation and adaptation strategy for marine ecosystems, within a few decades, it is possible that the most vulnerable marine ecosystems, such as coral reefs, will cease to function under their current forms (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). In this regard, marine management solutions, such as MPAs may prove to be useful in helping some living marine resources to respond to these changes (Zinn et al., 2007). In recent decades marine reserves have been established throughout the world as a management tool for compensating the effects of overfishing on coastal marine stock and biodiversity protection (García-Charton and Pérez-Ruzafa, 1999). However nowadays, with the pressing need to respond to climate change, scientists observed that these marine reserves were also an important tool to mitigate CO2 and adapt to the effects of climate change. As marine conservation can contribute to the two main responses to climate change through mitigation and adaptation, in the following sections, we will therefore look into more details at the two different types of marine’s conservation which aims to respond to climate change. Starting with the role of marine conservation as a mitigation tool, working on the sources of climate change, and then as an adaptation tool working on the effects of climate change.

i.

Mitigation: increasing CO2 capture and storage capacity through marine conservation Mitigation through marine conservation can be either considered as a way to store or capture CO2. The action of storing CO2 prevents the loss of carbon that is already present in the vegetation and soil. Capturing CO2 is the action of sequestering further carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in natural ecosystems (Dudley et al., 2010) Strength of this approach Few people may realize it, but in addition to producing most of the oxygen we breathe, the ocean absorbs some 25% of current annual carbon dioxide emissions (IUCN, 2009g). Half the world’s carbon stocks are held in plankton, mangroves, salt marshes and other marine life. So it is at least as important to preserve this ocean life as it is to preserve forests, to secure its role in helping us adapt to and mitigate climate change (IUCN, 2009g). Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystem globally, they are highly efficient carbon sinks that sequester and store large quantities of carbon in standing stock of biomass and sediments for long time periods (Laffoley and Grimsditch, 2009; Yee, 2010). Because of the potential for coastal and marine ecosystems to act as long term 12

carbon sinks, any changes in land use that would result in the losses of these carbon sinks will have profound effects on climate change (Yee, 2010). Sea-grass meadows, for example, which flourish in shallow coastal waters, account for 15% of the ocean’s total carbon storage, and underwater forests of kelp store huge amounts of carbon, just as forests do on land (IUCN, 2009g). The most efficient natural carbon sink of all is not on land, but in the ocean, in the form of ―Posidonia oceanic‖, a species of sea-grass that forms vast underwater meadows that wave in the currents just as fields of grass on land sway in the wind (IUCN, 2009g). Worldwide, coastal habitats like mangroves and sea-grass meadows are being lost because of human activity. Extensive areas have been altered by land reclamation and fish farming, while coastal pollution and overfishing have further damaged habitats and reduced the variety of species. It is now clear that such degradation has not only affected the livelihoods and well-being of more than two billion people dependent on coastal ecosystems for food, it has also reduced the capacity of these ecosystems to store carbon (IUCN, 2009g). The case for better management of oceans and coasts is twofold, as these healthy plant habitats help meet the needs of people adapting to climate change, and they also reduce greenhouse gases by storing carbon dioxide (IUCN, 2009g). Therefore, according to the IUCN, countries should be encouraged to establish marine protected areas — that is, set aside parts of the coast and sea where nature is allowed to thrive without undue human interference — and do what they can to restore habitats like salt marshes, kelp forests and sea-grass meadows (IUCN, 2009g). Protected areas are considered by scientists as the most effective management strategy currently known to avoid conversion to other land use or ocean and loss of carbon and to secure carbon in natural ecosystems (Dudley et al., 2010) Weakness of this approach

A majority of scientists think that strategies, such as fertilizing the oceans with iron to stimulate phytoplankton blooms, absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and export carbon to the deep sea should be abandoned, as there is not sufficient scientific basis on which to justify such activities, or the eventual second effect of such manipulation (Strong et al.,2009; Herr and Galland, 2009). Additionally, even if the most far-reaching mitigation strategies are met, climate change impacts will persist over the decades to come, due to lag effects of temperature in response to the build-up of CO2 already in the atmosphere (Hale et al., 2009; Herr and Galland, 2009; Tamelander, 2010). This lag effects will result in significant impacts, particularly in the marine and coastal environments. Therefore, it is necessary to adapt to current and future climate change in order to minimize impacts and increase resilience in both human societies and natural ecosystems (Herr and Galland, 2009). In this regard, 13

adaptation has become an indispensable complement to emission reduction and other climate change mitigation strategies (Herr and Galland, 2009). And we will therefore look in the next section at how marine conservation can help to adapt to the negative effects of climate change.

ii.

Adaptation to the negative effects of climate change through marine conservation

Adaptation can be either described as a way to protect, by maintaining ecosystem integrity, buffer local climate, reduce risks and impacts from extreme events such as storms, droughts and sea-level rise, or as a way to provide, by maintaining essential ecosystem services that help people cope with changes in water supplies, fisheries, diseases and agricultural productivity caused by climate change (Dudley et al., 2010). Additionally, adaptation through marine conservation efforts can also be considered as a way to enhance resistance (the ability to withstand change) and resilience (the ability to recover from change) to climate change by alleviating the overall pressures on the system, giving it more flexibility to mobilize its natural defenses (Hansen, 2003). Adaptation of an ecosystem can be done in several ways. In this research report, we will consider three main ones. We will start with adaptation as a way of creating sufficient space for change, such as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and a way of creating appropriate space by reducing all non-climate stresses. Then we will look at the third adaptation strategy which is through Ecosystem based Adaptation (EbA). Creating sufficient and appropriate space

Human development is not expected to cease anytime soon. With that in mind and in order to retain, maintain and recover marine natural sinks, scientists think that it is essential to build on current marine conservation strategies and develop more effective marine management regimes (Hansen, 2003; Herr and Galland, 2009). By building on existing practices, such as MPAs, and by reducing other human induced stress, it could be possible to maintain and recover marine carbon sinks while simultaneously supporting climate change adaptation strategies such as EbAs (Hansen, 2003; Herr and Galland, 2009). In order to become more efficient, scientists have recommended creating networks of marine reserves with effective management and enforcement put in place, in order to avoid ―paper parks‖ (Hansen, 2003; Westmcott et al., 2000). The MPAs within these networks should encompass large stable areas with high diversity of species such as coral reefs, mangroves sea-grass bed etc. (Hansen, 2003). Scientists recognize healthy ecosystems, as vital to the implementation of both mitigation and adaptation strategies (Herr and Galland, 2006). Well-functioning ecosystems, with high natural biodiversity, are able to sequester more carbon than degraded natural

14

structure. Furthermore, healthy ecosystems continue to provide ecosystem services1 that help people adapt to the adverse effects of climate change and exhibit high resilience to other problems. Indeed, it has been proven by scientists that protected areas are efficient tools to maintain essential natural resources and services, such as purer water, fish resources, food and health (Dudley et al., 2010). But marine ecosystems are currently being heavily impacted and degraded by many unsustainable human activities, including fisheries, pollution and habitat destruction (Herr and Galland, 2006). Such human activities have been recognized to disrupt habitats and release carbon back into the atmosphere. For the ocean to remain an efficient CO2 sink and not a global CO2 source, appropriate management approaches must be implemented to keep oceans as healthy as possible (Herr and Galland, 2009). In this regard, marine conservation projects/programs, can provide areas with no-climate stresses that will increase recovery potential (Hansen, 2003). Recovery and restoration of degraded habitats helps to respond to the effects of climate change, enhance the carbon sink capacity and also meet the socio-economic needs of the local population depending on these ecosystems (Hansen, 2003). We will look into more details in the next section on Ecosystem based Adaptation. Ecosystem based Adaptation Ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) is the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change (IUCN, 2009e). As one of the possible elements of an overall adaptation strategy, ecosystem-based adaptation uses the sustainable management, conservation, and restoration of ecosystems in order to assure a continuous provision of vital services that enable people to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change (Herr and Galland, 2009; IUCN, 2009e). It aims to maintain and increase ecosystem resilience and reduce the vulnerability of ecosystems and the local population depending on these ecosystems people to the adverse effects of climate change (IUCN, 2009e). EbA can generate significant social, economic and cultural co-benefits, contribute to the conservation of biodiversity, and build on the traditional knowledge and practices of indigenous peoples and local communities, including the important role of women as custodians of local knowledge (IUCN 2009e). In addition, healthy, well managed ecosystems have climate change mitigation potential, for example, through the sequestration and storage of carbon in healthy mangrove forests, wetlands, and coastal ecosystems (IUCN, 2009e). Ecosystem-based Adaptation is an effective way to protect communities from climate change effects, such as erosion, or extreme weather events (Herr and Galland, 2009). Healthy ecosystems, such as intact forests and wetlands, are beneficial to local populations for the many livelihood benefits that they provide: firewood, clean water, fibers, medicines, shelter and food (IUCN, 2009e). They can also form physical barriers against some extreme weather event such as storm surges. This is a means of 1

Ecosystem services are the socio-economic and ecological benefits that people obtain from nature, such as food regulation, storm protection, flood, clean water, fuel, shelter etc.

15

adaptation that is readily available to the rural poor; it is readily integrated into community-based adaptation, and addresses many of the concerns and priorities identified by the most vulnerable countries and communities (IUCN, 2009e). Additionally, scientists have observed that climate change is already impacting the ability of marine and coastal ecosystems to provide food, income, protection, cultural identity, and recreation to coastal residents, especially vulnerable communities in tropical areas. And that these impacts will continue and increase over the short to medium term, even as the community of nations works to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions (Hale et al., 2009). They also recognized the urgent need to develop, implement, and fund ecosystem-based adaptation strategies in coasts and oceans as a central part of the global response to climate change. And that coastal and marine ecosystem protection and restoration is the foundation for ecosystem-based adaptation, and strong and specific provisions for the development, implementation and funding coastal and marine EbA need be a central part of a Post 2012 Climate agreement (Hale et al., 2009). Strengths and Weaknesses of this approach

The strength of such an approach is that if adaptation strategies such as EbA are well implemented, after 3 to 5 years, positive results can already be observed and measured positive results (Menzel, 2010; Tamelander, 2010). EbA strategies are great sustainable tool as they are generally long-term projects which involve the local population while combining with ecological and economical services. The weakness of this approach is that the question of participation by the local community can be delicate as on many land conservation projects. Indeed, even if the participation of local population is strongly recommended, this important part of a conservation project is not always implemented, which could lead to tension and inefficient implementation of the project. Additionally, adaptation strategies are at a local scale, as they are local projects, with local responses. The uses of networks between the different marine conservation projects and also between land conservation projects are therefore essential to have a more efficient response to climate change. Marine conservation should also take into consideration non-climate stress, such as no fishing zones within the MPAs to ease the recovery of some species, reduce terrestrial and marine pollutions, and reduce damaging extraction (Hansen, 2003). Such adaptation actions combined with mitigation action through marine conservation will help to both reduce the amount of CO2 and respond to the effects of climate change.

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II.

Project categorization and financing opportunities

Due to a time constraint for completing this project, an exhaustive survey of the existing marine conservation projects linked to climate change was not feasible. Our approach was to provide an overview of different selected projects and analyse them through a specific grid (see Annex I). In this section, we will first share our main observations that came out from the grid analysis, and then, explain the reasoning that lead us to designing a marine conservation project categorization and its relevance for the partner.

1. Analysis of the Stakeholder and needs assessment grid A first general observation was that access to data was difficult or inexistent. Scientific projects such as ―The Changing Oceans Expedition‖ (see project 13 under Appendix I), aiming to develop a global map of the cumulative impact of human activity on the oceans are greatly needed (see Figure 5). Such a project is relevant and essential to better understand the human impacts on marine ecosystems and to have a comprehensive worldwide catalogue of marine conservation projects. Indeed, it has been identified by scientists that through continuing negotiations on climate change, nations should now make as a priority to produce a single map of the world that documents all the different types of coastal carbon sinks, and identify the ones that are in most immediate need of preservation (IUCN, 2009g). Scientists also recommend that new studies should be undertaken to better understand how best to manage these areas to increase carbon sequestration (IUCN, 2009g). Figure 5: A Global Map of Human Impacts to Marine Ecosystems

(Retrieved from NCEAS, 2010)

In this regard, scientific projects such as ―The Changing Oceans Expedition‖, studying the last remaining pristine marine sites to validate and refine the projections made on the 17

above map, will contribute to a better understanding of the marine management and conservation actions needed to respond to climate change. When the final map will be assembled, it is expected to be one of the most powerful resource management and conservation tools, which will be accessible to local, federal and international resource management agencies (NCEAS, 2010). This tool can therefore be reliably used by marine managers and policy-makers, as it will provide an insight of the need of actions. Initially, we will look at the different actors involved in this issue. The actors’ analysis from the selected projects reflects the information we have collected through literature review and interviews with experts. A marine conservation project linked to climate change issue involves a multiplicity of actors: governments (local, national, regional), non-governmental organizations (NGO), most of environmental type (local and international), the scientific community, International Organizations (IO), private sector and local populations. The involvement of each of these actors varies depending on the project’s specifics. For example, preservation projects often require the intervention of the concerned authority through the creation of new regulation or a change in the zoning, but the level of involvement of the local population will be rather less. Its implication will be limited to comply with the regulations and may be involved as guardians of the area. The situation is totally different concerning projects with a sustainable development strategy which requests changes in the socio-economic activities of the local population, as per example the Green Coast Program (see project 1 under Annex I). The nature of the actors involved is diversified, but we observed under the environmental NGOs category that IUCN and WWF appeared as the leading ones. But this observation may be the result showing that access to such information is rather difficult in the context of projects initiated locally, compared to the ones with international recognition through the support of international organization. Through the Stakeholder and needs assessment grid (Annex I), we can also observe that marine conservation projects linked to climate change are spread all around the world: Asia, Africa, Europe, Arctic, etc., proving once again that climate change is a global issue. However, similarly to forest conservation on land, we can notice a strong emphasis of marine conservation projects in the tropical area. Several reasons could probably be raised to explain this situation: the importance of human activities in these areas, more data and scientific knowledge on these ecosystems, a rich biodiversity which the protection is claimed publicly, the warming of the tropical sea-surface, etc. (Nellemann et al., 2009). However, we believe it may be also related to the particular types of marine ecosystems that we found in the tropics. Indeed, as we can see on following three maps (Figure 6, 7 and 8), the tropical area is where mangroves, sea grass beds and coral reefs are mainly located. And as we clearly exposed earlier, these are the privileged marine ecosystems for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

18

Figure 6: Mangroves Location

Figure 7: Sea-grass beds Location

(Retrieved from Nelleman et al., 2009, p.36)

(Retrieved from Nelleman et al., 2009, p.37)

Figure 8: Coral Reefs at Risk

(Retrieved from UNEP- GRID Arendal website, 2010)

Another observation that can be made concerns the type of management applied in the different marine conservation projects. As we stated it in a previous section, there are different management strategies for marine areas which are defined by the level of human interactions and activities allowed in this area. Going through the different selected projects and the literature on climate change mitigation and adaptation through marine conservation, it seems that nowadays, a strict preservationist approach is rarely promoted. Indeed, it seems that the selected projects are mainly based on a sustainable management strategy (such as EbA), where human activities are allowed at different degrees, and including, if needed, the creation of preservation areas. We should note that most of the marine conservation projects are located on the coastal areas, and only a few are located in the open sea. Knowing that around 60 percent of the 19

global population live on the coast areas, that 13 of the world’s 20 megacities lie along the coast, that the global economy depend ocean related-commerce and finally that human kind depends on goods and services provided by the ocean, scientists seem also to support a conservationist approach for the coastal areas management (UNEP data, 2008; UN Habitat 2008, Herr and Galland, 2009). Finally, we analysed what were the climate change related objectives of theses selected projects. We were able to gather these objectives under five general categories: Scientific, Education and Lobbying, Mitigation, Adaptation and Mitigation/Adaptation (see Table 2). These objectives are, in fact, the concrete links between the marine conservation projects and the issue of climate change. We believe that it is based on the relevance of these objectives, and their achievement, that we can evaluate the effectiveness of a marine conservation project in relation to climate change. After elaborating this projects’ categorization, we observed that each project category was, in fact, responding to one of the main issues that this emergent field of study is facing. In other words, this grid gives an array of concrete solutions to implement the scientific knowledge and approaches. It is important to specify that this categorization is not a priority ranking. These categories have to be seen as different options that our partner could propose to its clients when they ask about the financing opportunities in the issue of climate change mitigation and adaptation through marine conservation. The clients, based on their personal preferences, will have the choices to invest in concrete projects on the field aiming for climate change mitigation, adaptation or both. But from our point of view, it was also important to add the Scientific and Education/Lobbying categories. Because as mentioned by Mr. Tamelander and Mr. Menzel, without a complete and updated scientific knowledge, the population awareness and participation and the institutional and financial involvement of governments, the effectiveness of a marine conservation project for climate change mitigation and adaptation could be compromised (Tamelander, 2010; Menzel, 2010).

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Table 2: Marine Conservation Project Categorization Related to Climate Change Projects Marine Conservation Categories Scientific

Education and lobbying

Description of climate change related objectives

Relevance

Example

-Collect updated information on the state of the ocean -Identify and measure the effects of climate change on the marine ecosystems -Identification priority in marine conservation related to climate change issues -Sites monitoring -Mapping of the different marine management projects/programs. -Testing new technologies effectiveness -Inform and build public awareness on this issue in order to change their behaviours

- Update and complete the scientific knowledge - A better comprehension of a problem lead to a better and more effective response - Filling the gap of data : quantify the impacts

Changing oceans expedition Antinea; Tara expedition; Marine Conservation Biology Institute:

-A better understanding of the issue by local population is essential to increase its implication in the project -Response to the lack of funding -The need for international and national institutional frameworks and policies - Preventing the loss of carbon coming from destruction of natural sinks.

Part of the mandates of IUCN, WWF, UNEP, IPCC

- Inform and pressure decision-makers to take actions through financing mechanisms and policies

Mitigation

-Store: protect the natural marine carbon sinks by creating marine protected areas. Stopping the deterioration of mangroves, sea grass beds and salt marshes which are important carbon sinks -Capture: restoration of the deteriorated natural sinks and ensure its long-term effectiveness -Energy: development in the marine areas for renewal energy (wind, wave, tidal)

Adaptation

Protect: maintaining or restoring the ecosystem integrity and biodiversity, protecting species, forbidden certain types of human activities etc. Provide: maintaining the ecological and socioeconomic services provided by the ecosystem in order to response to the population needs

Mitigation and adaptation

There are projects that work on both mitigation and adaptation, responding to both objectives. Restoration and plantation of mangrove forests and preservation of sea-grass bed

21

-Increasing the CO2 capture capacity of the marine ecosystems -Proposing an ecological option to fossil fuels, main source of CO2 emissions - Increasing the resilience of the ecosystem to reinforce is ecological role as a buffer to extreme events - Increasing the resilience of the ecosystem to guarantee is economic services (see above)

Smaller actors also play a role as Oceana.

Samoa MPAs

German Agency for Nature Conservation Project on Protection of High Seas IUCN –Offshore energy projects Green Coast Programs; Sustainable Livelihoods Enhancement and Diversification; Nature Conservancy projects Red Cross project in Vietnam; Mangrove Ecosytem for Climate Change and Livelihoods

Conclusion Trying to understand the link between two broad and complex concepts such as climate change and marine conservation can first be considered as problematic. However through an exhaustive literature review, in order to cover all the different scientific disciplines involved, we could finally better understand the existing and inherent connection between the two. Indeed, the influences of the ocean in climate patterns and in the carbon cycle are, since many decades, well-known by the scientific community. It is therefore coherent to search solutions to mitigate and adapt to the climate change phenomenon through marine conservation, as we know that marine ecosystems are efficient carbon sinks or dangerous carbon emitters if they are not well managed. So, as we demonstrated in the first section of this report, climate change mitigation through marine conservation can be done either through storing CO 2, to prevent the loss of carbon that is already present in the vegetation and soil, or through capturing CO2, by sequestering further carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in natural ecosystems. And climate change adaptation can be done by creating sufficient space for change, such as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), by creating appropriate space by reducing all nonclimate stresses or through Ecosystem based Adaptation (EbA) strategies. Thanks to a strong, unify and determinate movement of the scientific community and environmental NGOs, the role of marine and coastal ecosystems as vital global carbon storage and as the recognition of their essential role in protecting and providing goods and services to populations, the international community has recently acknowledged on the high climate change mitigation and adaptation potential of marine conservation strategies. This new recognition by the international community will hopefully be illustrated through efficient policies and funding mechanisms. As demonstrated in this report, efficient management and implementation of marine conservation are a must in order to reach the expected climate change targets. In the second part of this report, we analyzed selected marine conservation projects and programs related to climate change in order to know more about the actors involved, the geographic areas privileged, the management types used and the climate change related objectives. To provide the partner with a useful tool that will help him to better advise their clients on the diverse funding opportunities, we created a categorization grid based on the different climate change related objectives. By choosing this specific criterion, we think that it facilitates the comprehension of the client, and consequently his choice, of where and how and aiming which purpose, its funds can be invested in.

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Challenges with Climate Change and Marine Conservation This new field of study is not an exception that means that marine conservation related to climate change is also facing many challenges. First, it is a fact that marine conservation it is a more expensive solution than the landbased one, mainly because of the equipment and technologies required (Tamelander, 2010). Therefore, the question of funding is crucial. But, in any conservation projects, when we talk about funding, the questions of evaluations and results are never far away. At the beginning of the implementation of such projects, the donors were hesitant questioning the models and instruments that would be used to measure the impacts and results related specifically to climate change mitigation and adaptation objectives of the project. However, nowadays, the scientists and technicians have proven that it is possible to adapt the techniques and instruments used for the land-based conservation projects and implement to the ocean-based conservation projects (Tamelander, 2010). These technical and technological improvements may encourage the international community to study the possibility of establishing innovative mechanisms, as the forests program REDD, for compensating countries that preserve essential carbon sinks in the oceans. Another challenge that faces any climate change related project is the question of scale, as the climate change discourse always put forward, climate change as a global issue that concerns all nations. Although, it seems that there is no existing solution that can be implemented at the global level. The actual solutions are implemented at the national or local levels. So, it is also the case for marine conservation. Donors have to be aware of this situation before they establish too high expectations. Taken individually, the marine conservation projects will have positive effects on climate change mitigation and adaptation only at the local level. But it is the multiplication of that kind of projects all around the world that will have a global impact on the global issue of climate change. Once again, we are coming back to the idea of ―Think globally, act locally‖. As we could observe from our literature review, linking climate change to marine conservation is a fairly young field of research. In this regard, the availability and the accessibility to impact evaluations of marine conservation projects were limited as many of them are still at their early age. Consequently, we had to base our Projects/Actors grid on projects that are currently taking place. Therefore, an exhaustive mapping of marine conservation projects is greatly needed in order to fill the gap of data and also in the perspective of best-practices sharing. As we observed that the majority of marine conservation projects were located on coastal-areas. This doesn’t mean that projects in the deep ocean are not relevant to the climate change issue; in fact many researches are currently taking place and projects are expected to be ready for implementation soon. But the main issue that these marine conservation projects are facing is the questions raised by the fact that they are located in international waters. This means that projects have to be approved by the international 23

community, which could complicate the process as it is not only a decision taken at a national level. In order to facilitate the emergence of deep ocean marine conservation projects the international community would have to establish a decision-making mechanism. As many marine conservation reserves and parks were implemented before the emergence of the field of study linking climate change and marine conservation, it is important to undertake a retroactive analysis of the already existing projects to see whether they eventually have a climate change mitigation and adaptation component, in order to better understand the global impact of marine conservation to respond to climate change. Recommandations to WISE 

The project categorization provided has to be considered as a list of the different solutions answering to the actual issues that marine conservation related to climate change is facing today. A follow-up on the development of these issues is therefore important to ensure the continuing relevance of the proposed solutions.



It is important to repeat that we did not establish a priority ranking between the suggested categories. Thereby, the clients have the possibility to choose the type of projects that they want to support based on their own preferences and knowing that all these opportunities meet real needs. But, as we highlighted in the report, the partner could inform its clients that it might be more urgent to act in some geographic areas because of their actual level of degradation.



As explained in the report, a marine conservation project by itself is less efficient than having a global marine conservation strategy for a specific area. Therefore, the partner might consider, when proposing funding opportunities to its clients, to limit on a specific country or region, in order to increase the impacts of such financing mechanism.

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

COLLS A., ASH N. and IKKALA N. (2009). Ecosystem-based Adaptation: A natural response to climate change. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 16pp 26



DUDLEY, N., S. Stolton, A. Belokurov, L. Krueger, N. Lopoukhine, K. MacKinnon, T. Sandwith and N. Sekhran [editors] (2010); Natural Solutions: Protected areas helping people cope with climate change, IUCNWCPA, TNC, UNDP, WCS, The World Bank and WWF, Gland, Switzerland, Washington DC and New York, USA.



FOX, H. E. (2009). Marine Conservation Science: Protecting the future of our oceans. WWF



Global Biodiversity Outlook 3 (2010). Executive Summary. Montréal, 12 pages



Global Forum (2009). World Ocean Conference: Statement emanating from the Global Ocean Policy Day.



HALE, L. Z., I. Meliane, S. Davidson, T. Sandwith, J. Hoekstra, S. Murawski, N. Cyr, K. Osgood, M. Hatziolos, P. Van Eijk, N. Davidson, W. Eichbaum (2009). Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems. The Nature Conservancy, National Marine Fisheries Services, NOAA, The World Bank, Wetlands International, Ramsar Secretariat, WWF.



HERR, D. and GALLAND, G. R. (2009). The Ocean and Climate Change. Tools and Guidelines for Action. IUCN, Gland, Switerland. 72pp.



IUCN (2004). Managing Marine Protected Areas: A tool kit for the Western Indian Ocean. IUCN Eastern African Regional Programme.



IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN-WCPA) (2008). Establishing



Marine Protected Area Networks—Making It Happen. Washington, D.C.: IUCNWCPA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and The Nature Conservancy. 118 p.



Laffoley, D. and G. Grimsditch (2009) The Management of Natural Coastal Carbon Sinks. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 53pp.



MCCIP (2010). Marine Climate Change Impacts: Annual Report Card 2010-2011.



NELLEMAN, C., Corcoran, E., Duarte, C. M., Valdés, L., De Young, C., Fonseca, L., Grimsditch, G. (Eds). (2009). Blue Carbon: A Rapid Response Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, GRID-Arendal.



PRITCHARD, D. (2009). Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in developing countries (REDD) – the link with wetlands. Foundation for International Environmental Law and Development, London.



SMITH, S.E., I. Meliane, A. White, C. Snyder, B. Cicin-Sain, and R. Danovaro (2009). Impacts of Climate Change on Marine Biodiversity and the Role of Networks of Marine Protected Areas, Policy Brief 7a prepared by Global Forum on Oceans, Coasts and Islands for the World Ocean Conference



STERN, N. et al. (2006) The Stern Review: The Economics of Climate Change. Retrieved on 13/10/2010 at 17.00 from: http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/independent_review/stern_review_economics_clim ate_change/stern_review_Report.cfm 27



TEEB (2010) The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity.Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A synthesis of the approach, conclusion and recommandations of TEEB.



VIERROS, M., C. Cicin-Sain, S. Arico and C. Lefebvre. 2010. Preserving Life: Halting Marine Biodiversity Loss and Establishing Networks of Marine Protected Areas in 2010 and Beyond. Fifth Global Oceans Conference 2010



WWF (2007) Defending Nature Against Climate Change.



ZINN, J. and E. H. Buck. 2001. "Marine Protected Areas: An Overview." Congressional Research Service Report. February 8, 2001, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Congress.

WEBSITES: 

Antarctic climate and Ecosystem – Cooperative Research Centre http://www.acecrc.org.au/



Antinea Foundation http://www.antinea-foundation.org/



Changing Oceans http://www.changingoceans.org/global-itinerary.php



Communication partnership for science and the sea http://compassonline.org/default.php?marinescience/solutions_ecosystem



Convention on Biological Diversity http://www.cbd.int/



Census of Marine Life http://www.coml.org/



GRID-Arendal Center -UNEP http://www.grida.no/



IMOS – Integrated Marine Observing System - Australia http://www.imos.org.au/



International News and Analysis on MPAs http://depts.washington.edu/mpanews/



Institut Pierre Simon Laplace – Institut de recherche en sciences de l’environnement http://cycleducarbone.ipsl.jussieu.fr/index.php/visiteurs-mainmenu-6/3-cycle-ducarbone/20-un-cycle-elle-humaine.



IUCN – Climate Change http://www.iucn.org/what/tpas/climate/

28

http://www.iucn.org/about/union/commissions/wcpa/wcpa_what/wcpa_marine/wcp a_marinelinks/ (links to organizations working on MPAs) 

Marine Conservation Biology Institute http://www.mcbi.org/



Marine Planning http://marineplanning.org/13.htm



Millennium Ecosystem Assessment http://www.maweb.org/en/index.aspx



National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration & MPAs Center - USA http://www.noaa.gov/ocean.html http://www.mpa.gov/



NCEAS-National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/globalmarine



Oceana http://na.oceana.org/en/about-us/what-we-do



PISCO – Partnership of International Studies of Coastal Oceans http://www.piscoweb.org/



Protect Planet Ocean http://www.protectplanetocean.org/



Tanzania Marine Conservation Agreement http://www.mcatoolkit.org/Field_Projects/Field_Projects_Tanzania.html



The UNICPOLOS Process http://www.un.org/Depts/los/consultative_process/consultative_process.htm



UNEP- World Conservation Monitoring System http://www.unep-wcmc.org/marine/



WWF http://www.wwf.ch/fr/lewwf/notremission/climat/consequences/oceans/

INTERVIEWS: 

MENZEL Ronald (2010) IHEID student Interview with Mr. Menzel, Director and Founding Member, Antinea Foundation, Friday 29th October 2010 from 10h00 to 11h45 in Geneva



TAMELANDER Jerker (2010) IHEID student Interview with Mr. Tamelander, Manager Oceans and Climate Change, IUCN, with Mr. Menzel, Friday 26th November 2010 from 13h30 to 15h00 at IUCN Headquarters in Gland 29

ANNEX I: Stakeholder mapping and needs assessment grid

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