The occurrence and abundance of insect pollinators around specific

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Internship report: The occurrence and abundance of insect pollinators around specific landscape features

Bourget Romain EN157

Internship Supervisor : Dr Howlett Brad (C&F Research) Pr Manzanares-Dauleux Maria (ENSAR)

September 2007 – January 2008 -0-

Table of Contents Introduction

3

I/- Crop & Food Research Presentation

4

1. Crop & Food Research, a New Zealand’s company 2. Crop & Food Research, a biological sciences company 3. Crop & Food Research, a sustainable productive company

4 4 5

II/- The occurrence and abundance of insect pollinators around specific landscape features

6

1. Introduction 2. Materials & Methods 2.1. Field sites 2.2. Traps localization 2.3. Window & fly attractant traps 2.4. Work organization 2.5. Insects observation 3. Results 3.1. Data presentation 3.2. Data transformation 3.3. Statistical approach 3.4. Graphic approach 4. Discussion 5. References

6 7

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14 16 18

III/- Related Activities 1. Writing Work 1.1. Landscape requirements for flower visiting insects to crops 1.2. Within field variation in Honey Bee Visitation between onion male sterile and fertile lines in New Zealand 2. Field Work -1-

18

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2.1. Field preparation 2.2. Insects observation 2.3. Experiment management 3. Laboratory Work 3.1. Insects sorting 3.2. Windows traps construction 3.3. Input data 3.4. Identify and count pollen

19

Conclusion Acknowledgments Appendices

20 20 21

Appendices 1: Agricultural Production in New Zealand Appendices 2: Land use in New Zealand Appendices 3: Livestock in New Zealand Appendices 4: Agriculture in New Zealand Appendices 5: Crop & Food Research Diagram Appendices 6: Feature presentation Appendices 7: Data Appendices 8: Flower visitors and pollinators of NZ Crop Plants Appendices 9: within field variation in Honey Bee Visitation between onion male sterile and fertile lines in New Zealand Appendices 10: Insects differentiated

22 22 22 23 24 25 26 27

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40 43

Introduction I am currently in the second year of the agronomist engineering formation in the Ecole National Superieur Agronomique de Rennes. During this year, we have to do an internship in another country. I have chosen to do mine in Crop & Food Research, Lincoln, New Zealand with the Pollination Entomologist Brad Howlett. I have chosen this internship for several reasons. Firstly, the topic: I like ecology and I want to work in an ecological field. The study of insects for pollination is an interesting and valuable ecological application on agriculture. Secondly, I wanted to do my internship in a research center to have a good approach of the scientific world. In fact, I would like to eventually work as a researcher. Thirdly, I wanted to go very far from France to discover new cultures and new lifestyles. And specifically in New Zealand to see gorgeous landscapes. I wanted to go to an English country to improve my English level. So this internship responsive at my expectation. I worked on several projects with Brad Howlett, Melanie Walker and Romina Rader, but spent a large amount of time on a project which studies the occurrence and abundance of insect pollinators around specific landscape features. So my report will present Crop & Food Research, then I will present like a scientific report my project, and to finish there will be a brief presentation of all work that I did.

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I/- Crop & Food Research Presentation 1. Crop & Food Research, a New Zealand’s company New Zealand is a country of four million in a southern hemisphere and covers a total of 265,000 km2. There are two mains islands – North Island and South Island – and one secondary – Stewart Island. Landscapes of North Island are dominated by a large thermal area, active and dormant volcanoes and a 400 km2 lake: the Lake Taupo. In the South Island, landscapes are more mountainous with Alps chain. The climate is mild and temperate, mainly maritime. But it can vary according regions. The main cities are Wellington – the capital – Auckland – the biggest city of New Zealand – and Christchurch – the biggest city of the South Island and the second of New Zealand. Agriculture is the main export industry in New Zealand and is developed everywhere on the country (appendices 1, 2 & 4). Pastures are Figure 1:Crop & Food Research located site developed because the climate is wet and temperate (appendices 3). There is a diversification with farmed deer or viticulture. There are eight Crop & Food Research sites in New Zealand. They are located close to major cities, in attractive areas (figure 1). The headquarter is in Lincoln (20 km from Christchurch), where I did my internship. Their missions are ‘knowledge and value from scientific discovery’. They are developing their research in Australia through Crop & Food Research Australia and there staff is now 325.92 STE (appendices 5)

2. Crop & Food Research, a biological sciences company Crop & Food Research’s vision is to conducting world leading and collaborative science, bringing science and business together in long-term relationships, applying our strong commercialisation Figure 2: Crop & Food Research’s logo capability to convert intellectual capital into value and helping to transform New Zealand's economy. They are considered like a highly respected biological sciences company. They have five centres of innovation:

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Sustainable land and water use, High performance plants, Personalised foods, High value marine products and new biomolecules and biomaterials. To reach their goal, they have created eight teams. Each team works on a different topic, but they can use competence of different teams for one project. Teams work about sustainable productive environments, seafoods and marine extracts, plant and food composition, nutrition and health, new and ornamental crops, plant Genetic Technologies, food and biomaterials innovation, crop improvement.

3. Crop & Food Research, a sustainable productive company A Crop & Food Research’s team works on sustainable productive. That means using the land, water and air but keep them in good condition for the generations to come. So scientists define sustainable practices and they help develop management systems that are economically viable and environmentally sustainable. To do this the Sustainable Productive Environments team integrates skills in soil science, crop agronomy, plant physiology, entomology, plant pathology, weed science, molecular microbiology, computer modelling and biometrics. The team works with lots of sector (arable, vegetable, horticulture, dairy, intensive livestock and organics sectors) and for different clients (government departments and regional councils, growers, seed firms, fertiliser and agrochemical companies as well as food processing companies). They have currently several projects : Integrated pest management for vegetable crops ; IRAP: Keeping nutrients in crops, not groundwater ; Greenhouse gas down and forage up ; Integrated control of powdery scab of potato ; Soil quality monitoring for the arable industry ; Developing decision support systems ; Assessing indigenous aphid populations ; Molecular microbiology. A part of them work is to understand the role of native pollinators. More specifically, they try to improve understanding of the environmental impacts of genetic modification by pollen dispersal, especially by indigenous pollinators, within and between productive and natural environments. So there are entomologists in this team like Brad Howlett. Currently, he works with Melanie Walker and Romina Rader. They have several projects: study abundance and diversity of pollinators in New Zealand pasture, estimate the displacement distance of pollinators around a field and their capacity to convey viable pollen, and study the occurrence and abundance of insect pollinators around specific landscape features.

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Figure 3: Indigenous Fly: Melangyna novae-zealandiae (Black Hover Fly)

II/- The occurrence and abundance of insect pollinators around specific landscape features 1. Introduction Varroa destructor was introduced in New Zealand in 2000 for the North Island and in 2006 for the South Island. It’s an external parasite of adult and larva stage of honey bees. Infested colonies are weakened by the decrease of adult honey bees and emerging bees may be less active (MAF 2003). The infection of honey bee (Apis mellifera) hives with varroa in the South Island will have a significant effect on the availability of honey bees to pollinate seed crops. It is expected to cost South Island agriculture $314 million by 2035, and currently annual impacts on arable industries are likely to be $1.57 million (MAF 2003). To address this, a collaboration of industry personnel and arable seed producers (brought together by Foundation for Arable Research [FAR]) who all have interest in sustaining ongoing pollination in the presence of varroa set up a project (SFF pollinator project). Indeed, although the honey bee is considered as the most important crop pollinator, many crops attract a wide array of insect species that can contribute to pollination (Howlett 2006). So this project will provide an understanding of both managed and unmanaged pollinators in an effort to sustain the current level of pollination in a rapidly growing industry. If successful, this project will reduce the cost of Varroa to seed industry by, for example, developing an integrated pollination strategy for industries reliant on insects for pollination service, managing honeys bees more efficiently and harnessing unmanaged bees and flies for pollination services. If the role of unmanaged insects in crop pollination can be increased by 20% then fewer honey bee hives will be required for crop pollination services. A part of this project is to study the influence of specific landscape features on the occurrence and abundance of pollinators to know if some bees or flies can be managed. This part was studied in this report. Some work has been conducted over the past four years. They found that common indigenous pollinators include: bees (Leioproctus and Lasioglossum) and flies (Syrphidae, Calliphoridae, Stratiomyidae, Bibionidae and Tachinidae) (FRST 2003) ; abundance and diversity of key indigenous and exotic species varies greatly within and between fields and between regions (FRST 2003) ; a range of flies and bees are effective and efficient pollinators of seed crops and could contribute significantly to crop pollination (FRST 2003; Howlett 2006) ; the occurrence and abundance of flower visiting insects to white clover seed crops varies considerably between fields (FAR 2004-2007). The objectives of this study are to find positive associations between landscape features and pollinator occurrence and abundance to assist seed growers in crops placement and timing to maximise pollination services.

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2. Materials & Methods 2.1. Field sites The places used for this study were located in Canterbury Plains near Lincoln, South Island, New Zealand. Canterbury is undulating plains and it’s intensively cultivated. Very little of original vegetation remains. The soil contains greywacke gravels, some loess and fine alluvium so fertility is high (Leathwick, Wilson et al. 2003).

2.2. Traps localization Six dairy farms within 20 km of Lincoln Township were chosen for study. In each Dairy farm, there were four treatments and one control. Each treatment represented a different landscape feature. So there were four different landscapes features: Water (pond or ditch), Gorse hedgerow, Pine/Macrocarpa hedgerow and Garden; and the control was in a Dairy pasture (Appendices 6). At each replicate, 2 windows traps and 1 fly attractant trap were used.

2.3. Window & fly attractant traps Window traps and fly attractant traps was used to catch insects (appendices 6). The window trap design is an effective method for collect flower visitors and has been used previously to sample flower visitors in brassica and onion crops (Howlett, unpublished data). It consisted of a transparent perspex window positioned upon a yellow 6 L plastic tray. The perspex pane lengthways is 36.4 x 27 cm and the widthways is 23.8 x 27 cm. Traps were placed at 1 m above the ground supported on 4 poles. The tray was filled with 1 L of water containing detergent. The detergent reduces the surface tension of the water, it was used to ensure efficient capture of insects. Fly attractant traps are small bottles (height: 15 cm; diameter: 8 cm) with a yellow lid with four little holes. The bottles contained fly attractant (formula designed by EnviroSafe® which catches a broad range of fly species including house, bush and blow flies (excluding fruit fly)). Traps were attached to a pole and positioned 20 cm above the ground. The use of two kinds of trap allowed for a better estimation of present insects. This is because traps can be biased in the types of insects they catch.

2.4. Work organization All traps were placed out on Tuesday, 27 November 2007 and they were left out for a period of 18 consecutive days. Trays were emptied and refilled with water and detergent after 4, 11 and 18 days to prevent insect samples from drying out (traps were not refilled after 18 days of trapping). Collected insects were placed in labelled vials containing 75% ethanol. Fly attractant traps were not changed during the 18 days and insects captured were put in labelled vials. So there were 90 samples for the window -7-

traps (one for one farm, one landscape and one “week”) and 30 samples for the fly attractant traps (one for one farm and one landscape). Afterwards, samples were sorted in the laboratory (see part III/- 3.1.).

2.5. Insects observation To have a better estimation of insect populations and to see how the insects behaved on flowers, observations were also conducted at each trap site. The principle was for all landscape features to count 50 white clover flowers and note all insects on these flowers, and check all other flowers within 5 meters of the traps and those insects on or near both hedgerows and the water features, all insect within 10 meters each side of the trap along the hedgerow or the water were noted.

3. Results – During the time of my internship, only insects of the window traps were – – able to be sort so only these results will be present. –

3.1. Data presentation After samples were sorted, results were input in an Excel® sheet. All “weeks” were added to have an estimation of number insects on 18 days. So the result’s table had 30 rows (number of replicate: 5 farms x 6 features) and 26 columns (number of different insects observed) (Appendices 7). To have a better view of the data, box plots were done with the statistical software R (R Development Core Team 2007; R commander 2007). One box plot was draw for each insect with features and each insect with farms (Appendices). The scrip was: > Data ## n : insect number > n ## Boxplots > for (i in 1:n){ + X11() ## Open a new graph sheet + boxplot((Data[,i+2]~Feature), ylab=names(Data)[i+2], xlab="Feature", data=Data,main=names(Data)[i+2]) + } > for (i in 1:n){ + X11() + boxplot((Data[,i+2]~Farm), ylab=names(Data)[i+2], xlab="Farm", data=Data,main=names(Data)[i+2]) + }

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3.2. Data transformation A log(n+1) transformation was used because there was a correlation between residual versus fitted led values with the untransformed data. The log(n+1) transformation made the data suitable for ANOVA. Residual versus Fitted plots were made for each insect with R (Appendices): > ##Draw the Residual vs Fitted plot for each insect for the untransformed data > + + + +

for (j in 1:n){ g ##Load the log(n+1) data > Dataset ##Draw the Residual vs Fitted plot for each insect for the transformed data > + + + +

for (j in 1:n){ g ## Create the P-value table > > > > > > > >

Pvalue + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

for(j in 1:n){ Pvalue[j+1,1]=names(Dataset)[j+2] Anova write.table(Pvalue, file = "F:/Pvalue.txt", sep="\t")

ANOVA’s results are presented on the next table, if the P-value is lower than 0.05 the hypothesis H1 is accepted:

Insects Calliphoridae Brown.Blow.fly Euro.Blue.Blow.fly Euro.Green.Blow.fly Bronze.thorax.fly Muscid

Feature (Df=4) 9 °C and egg development in adult females >11 °C (Wall et al. 1992). Larval development faster with fluctuating temps that support development (Davies and Ratcliffe 1994). Larval and pupal mortality

(Bisdorff and Wall 2006).

Calliphora vicina (RobineauDesvoidy, 1830), (introduced).

Calliphora stygia (Fabricius,1794), (Introduced).

Calliphora quadrimaculata (Swedarius, 1787), (Native).

from meat or faeces (Wall et al. 2002).

increases with prolonged exposure to cool temps 1 °C (Donovan et al. 2006).

Adults abundant around hedgerows (Henning et al. 2005).

Optimal larval development occurs at 25 °C (Williams and Richardson 1984)

Most abundant from spring to autumn (Dear 1986, Cottam et al. 1998) but can occur in winter (Dear 1986).

Throughout New Zealand (Dear 1986).

Maggots develop in carrion (Miller and Walker 1984) and are also found in dog faeces (Lawson and Gemmell 1985). Primary fly associated with cutaneous myasis in sheep (Miller and Walker 1984). Maggots usually develop in carrion (Miller and Walker 1984) but also noted in dog faeces (Lawson & Gemmell 1985). In highland areas with no carrion present, larvae apparently feed on the decaying leaf bases of snow tussock (Dear

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1986).

Pollenia pseudorudis (Rognes,1985), (Introduced).

Adults begin hibernation (often in buildings) in autumn (Heath et al. 2004)..

Hydrotaea rostrata (RobineauDesvoidy, 1830)

Active throughout spring-autumn in southern Australia (Archer and Elgar 2003b).

Adults frequently mate on or near carrion (Archer and Elgar 2003a).

Delia platura (Meigen, 1826)

Adults common during summer in New Zealand (Butcher 1984), however, abundance can be variable within and between years (Broatch et al. 2006).

Found throughout New Zealand (Butcher 1984).

Pollenia are parasitic on earthworms (Heath et al. 2004).

Feed on nectar (Authors pers. obs.)

P.pseudorudis has a resistance to freezing (active following 2hrs at 10 C) (Heath et al. 2004).

Feed on carrion (Dadour et al. 2001, Archer and Elgar 2003b, Lang et al. 2006) and biosolids (Dadour and Voss 2004). Feeds on stems and seeds of a range of commercial crops (Butcher 1984).

Feed on nectar (Authors pers. obs.).

Lifecycle significantly delayed at cooler temperatures (12 - 18°C compared to warmer 19 - 30°C (Dadour et al. 2001).

Feed on nectar (Authors pers. obs.).

Flies abundant on crop flowers before 7-10 am and 4 – 8 pm during summer Authors pers. obs.). Larval development > 0.6°C (Lee et al. 2000).

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Tachinidae: Proscissio spp. (Native). Protohystricia spp. (Native). Pales spp. (Native).

Tachinids as arthropod parasitoids occupy a high trophic level and might be sensitive to habitat structure and composition (Stireman et al. 2006).

Tachinids are parasitoids and their larvae feed within the host body cavity of Arthropods (Cantrell 1986, Stireman et al. 2006). Proscissio cana parasitizes the New Zealand grass grub(Merton 1982).

Shrubs and grasslands may increase abundance of Proscissio cana Hutton (Merton 1980). Many tachinids are flower visitors (Stireman et al. 2006) including species of Protohystricia (Primack 1978, Robertson and Lloyd 1993, Robertson and Macnair 1995) and Pales spp. (Primack 1979).

Abundant in forest margins and home gardens under the fallen leaves of native and exotic broad-leaved trees (Harris 1983, Harris 2005). Eat dead plant material but also implicate in damaging grass rootlets (Harris 2005). Feeds on decaying organic material in stagnant water. (Dyer 2006).

Adults collected on blossoms and are probably nectar feeders (Harrison 1990).

Dilophus nigrostigma (Walker 1848), (Native).

Peak activity from November to February (Harrison 1990). Abundance of organic material is strongly correlated to larvae numbers (Vorsatz & Rode, 1967).

Dilophus nigrostigma adults are common on flowers (Harrison 1990). Dilophus larvae found to be highly aggregated in grassland (Blackshaw and D'Arcy-Burt 1997).

Eristalis tenax (Linnaeus, 1758)

In New Zealand peak abundances of females recorded in winter and males in summer (Irvin et al. 1999).

Adults found mostly on white and yellow flowers feeding on nectar and pollen (Haslett 1989, Dyer 2006). Males can have home ranges of 500 m2 (Wellington

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Pollen protein to mature reproductive organs and develop eggs. (Gilbert 1986, Dyer 2006). Also feed on nectar (Gilbert 1986, Dyer 2006)

Protohystricia sp. is a more abundant flower visitor under cold ( 30° C (Jarlan et al. 1997). Males become active at > 10° C (Wellington and Fitzpatrick 1981). Larval development rapid at > 20° C. Cloudy conditions or a high midday sun increases male

and Fitzpatrick 1981).

Melangyna novae zelandiae (Macquart, 1855)

Abundance peaks between January and February (Irvin et al. 1999).

Melanostoma fasciatum (Macquart, 1850)

Odontomyia spp.

Most abundant Spring – early Summer (Cayrou and Ghino 2005, Coin 2005)

Adults visit a wide range of flowering plants feeding on nectar and pollen (Irvin et al. 1999). Movement restricted by hedgerows (Wratten et al. 2003).

Larvae are normally found in water such as ponds (Evenhuis 1989, Williams 1997, Rozkosny and Kovac 2001, Hawking et al. 2006) and adults abundant in swampy areas (Fulton 1911, Colless and McAlpine 1991, Hilty 2002, Coin 2005) and flowers (Borror and White 1970, Borror et al. 1989, Johnson and Triplehorn 2004).

aggression. (Wellington and Fitzpatrick 1981).

Feed on aphids and Lepidopteran larvae (Miller and Walker 1984, Scott 1984, Wratten et al. 1995, Walker et al. 2005).

Pollen appears essential for egg maturation (Irvin et al. 1999). Feed on nectar (Miller and Walker 1984, Wratten and Thomas 1990).

Syrphids are considered thermoregulatory (Graham et al. 1997). Sun Basking by many syrphids may increase body temperature to allow foraging activity (Morgan and Heinrich 1987).

Larvae feed on worms, small crustacea, and insects in moist ground (Hilty 2002) or on algae (Killermont 2004, Coin 2005)

Feed on nectar. (Evenhuis 1989, Colless and McAlpine 1991, Durden and Zappler 1999, Hilty 2002, Coin 2005).

Most abundant where mean annual temperature >12.8ºC, mean annual rainfall >1000 mm. (Robertson 1985) Larvae found in water of temperature < 38.5ºC. (Winterbourn 1968).

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Bombus terrestris ( Linnaeus 1758)

Bombus hortorum ( Linnaeus 1761)

Bombus ruderatus ( Fabricius 1775)

Usually flying Sept. May in NZ but queens and workers may forage in all seasons (Donovan 2007). Foraging queens abundant early to late spring (Donovan 2007). Drones common mid spring to late autumn while workers are most abundant mid-spring summer (Donovan 2007). Occurs all year round but most abundant during spring and summer (NovemberFebruary)(Donovan and Macfarlane 1984, Donovan 2007).

Individuals may be seen flying at any time of the year in regions with mild (Donovan 2007) In cool and cold regions, bees will not be observed flying during the winter (Donovan 2007). Queens emerge in late

Most common bumblebee throughout most of New Zealand (Macfarlane and Gurr 1995) and very common in urban areas (Donovan 2007). Less common in native vegetation (Goulson and Hanley 2004).

Feeds on pollen and nectar (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984).

Forages on more than 500 species of introduce plants and also on natives (Donovan 2007).

Will forage at low temps. (< 10°C) (Donovan 2007). A queen spends the winter in small dry and sheltered cavities excavated in the ground and rising spring temperatures stimulates her emergence (Donovan 2007).

South of the North island and South Island from sea level to 1250 m )(Donovan 2007).Common in improved pasture (Goulson and Hanley 2004), near road verges, shingle river margins and nonnative scrub (Goulson et al. 2006) Most common in lightly settled districts with warm dry climate in both main islands. (Macfarlane and Gurr 1995, Donovan 2007). Common near road verges, shingle river margins

Feed on pollen and nectar (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984).

Often seen foraging on flowers with deep, tubular corollas, especially introduced clovers (Trifolium pratense) (Donovan 2007). Queens nest in dry cavity protected from wind and sunlight with fibrous material (Donovan 2007).

New nests are founded each year in New Zealand (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984, Donovan 2007).

Feed on pollen and nectar (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984).

Flower preference for foraging are similar to B. hortorum (Donovan 2007)[ (Donovan 2007). Has only been observed visiting the flowers of one native species (Donovan 2007). Nest in underground

Most common and active in regions where climate is warm and dry (Donovan 2007). Climate appears to influence the length of hibernation of queens (Donovan 2007) Hibernation is complete in cool and cold regions (Donovan 2007).

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spring (Donovan 2007). Drones and workers become abundant during early summer (Donovan 2007).

improved pasture and non-native scrub (Goulson et al. 2006).

Bombus subterraneus ( Linnaeus 1758)

Has mainly been captured between December and March however the flight period is likely to be more extensive (Donovan 2007).

Restricted mainly to the central South Island between 80 to 1000 m (Donovan 2007). Found to be abundant near lakes (Goulson and Hanley 2004).

Feed on pollen and nectar (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984).

L. sordidum (Smith 1853) L. cognatum (Smith 1853)

Sometimes seen in winter months, however, peak abundance from Spring October through to early/mid autumn (Donovan 2007).

L. sordidum is common through North and South Islands, L. cognatum, North Island and north South Island (Donovan 2007).

Feed on nectar and pollen (Donovan 2007).

sheltered tunnels (Donovan 2007).

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Favours introduced Fabaceae flowers especially Lupinus spp. and pasture legumes(Donovan 2007). Nest below ground but also in above-ground hives (Donovan 2007). L. sordidum forages for nectar and collects pollen from a diverse range of native and exotic plants (Donovan 2007) L. cognatum also forages on native and exotic species (Donovan 2007). All species nest in earth with L. sordidum nests found in ocean beaches, river beds and bare ground of crumbling clay (Donovan 2007).

Fertilised females inactive in nests within soil during winter (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984).

Leioproctus species (19 described within New Zealand’s biogeographical zone) (Donovan 2007).

Most species can be observed flying between Sept.- Feb. in NZ with peak abundances in Dec. and Jan. (Donovan 2007).

Species found throughout NZ, with some species widely distributed e.g. L. Boltoni (Cockerell 1904) and L. huakiwi (Donovan 2007), and others restricted to specific locations e.g. Leioproctus purpureus (Smith 1853) is found close to sandy coasts (Donovan 2007)

Feed on pollen and nectar (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984).

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Variable foraging preferences with some, visiting flowers from a range of plant families e.g. L. huakiwi while others with distinct preferences e.g. L. vestitus ( Smith 1876 ) for fabaceae and plantaginaceae. Nest in bare earth (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984, Donovan 2007) with location often varying between species e.g. L. metallicus (Smith 1853) prefers beach and dune sand and beneath wood or stones while L. huakiwi (Donovan 2007) utilises ocean cliffs, bared sheep tracks in hilly pasture, clay tracks, sand in forest, packed gravel, soil beneath kiwifruit vines and avocado trees (Donovan 2007).

All species diapuse during winter (Donovan and Macfarlane 1984, Donovan 2007).

General Calliphorid Info: Pupae overwinter in the soil during winter (Cottam et al. 1998). Mininimum temperatures may be reasonable predictor of fly abundance with cooler overnight temperatures leading to lower abundance (Cottam et al. 1998). Calliphorid numbers can vary greatly within and between years (Cottam et al. 1998). The abundance of Calliphorid flies across a day can be significantly influenced by the combined effects of ambient temperature, wind speed, relative humidity and solar radiation (Vogt et al. 1983). The composition and abundance of Calliphorid species vary between different habitats such as urban, grassland and woodland (Hwang & Turner 2005). The substrate wich C. vicina larvae are fed can significantly influence larval development rate with lamb liver, beef mince, pork mince and canned dog food good substrates for larval development (Donovan et al. 2006).

General Tachinid Info: Many tachinids are thought to be pollinators (Stireman et al. 2006) including Protohystricia huttoni (Robertson & Macnair 1995) Look Up for H. rostrata –flower visitor. Respiration, Temperature Regulation and Energetics of Thermogenic Inflorescences of the Dragon Lily Dracunculus vulgaris (Araceae) Roger S. Seymour, Paul Schultze-Motel Proceedings: Biological Sciences, Vol. 266, No. 1432 (Oct. 7, 1999), pp. 1975-1983 This article consists of 9 page(s).

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Archer, M. S., and M. A. Elgar. 2003a. Effects of decomposition on carcass attendance in a guild of carrion-breeding flies. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 17: 263-271. Archer, M. S., and M. A. Elgar. 2003b. Yearly activity patterns in southern Victoria (Australia) of seasonally active carrion insects. Forensic Science International 132: 173-176. Barratt, B. I. P., C. M. Ferguson, A. C. G. Heath, and R. A. S. Logan. 2001. Relative abundance and seasonality of Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae (Diptera), potential vectors of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) in the South Island of New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 28: 417-428. Bisdorff, B., and R. Wall. 2006. Blowfly strike prevalence in domestic rabbits in southwest England and Wales. Veterinary Parasitology 141: 150-155. Bishop, D. M. 1998. Parasitic Hymenoptera reared from dung-breeding Diptera in New Zealand. New Zealand Entomologist 21: 99-106. Blackshaw, R. P., and S. D'Arcy-Burt. 1997. Spatial distribution of bibionid larvae in agricultural grassland. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata 84: 17-25. Borror, D. J., and R. E. White. 1970. A field guide to Insects. America north of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin., Boston Borror, D. J., C. A. Triplehorn, and N. F. Johnson. 1989. An Introduction to the Study of Insects. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia. Broatch, J. S., L. M. Dosdall, G. W. Clayton, K. N. Harker, and R. C. Yang. 2006. Using degree-day and logistic models to predict emergence patterns and seasonal flights of the cabbage maggot and seed corn maggot (Diptera : Anthomyiidae) in Canola. Environmental Entomology 35: 1166-1177. Broughan, J. M., and R. Wall. 2007. Fly abundance and climate as determinants of sheep blowfly strike incidence in southwest England. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 21: 231-238. Butcher, M. R. 1984. Vegetable Crop Pests, pp. 93-118. In R. R. Scott [ed.], New Zealand pest and beneficial insects. Lincoln University College of Agriculture, Christchurch. Cantrell, B. K. 1986. Descriptions of the partial life histories of some australian tachinidae (diptera). J. Aust. enr. Soc 25 215-221. Cayrou, J., and R. Ghino. 2005. Life-cycle phenology of some aquatic insects: implications for pond conservation. Aquatic Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 15: 559-571. Clark, K., L. Evans, and R. Wall. 2006. Growth rates of the blowfly, Lucilia sericata, on different body tissues. Forensic Science International 156: 145-149. Coin, P. 2005. BugGuide, Iowa State University Entomology. (cited Oct 20, 2007; available from: http://bugguide.net/node/view/7648). VanDyk, J., IA. Colless, D. H., and D. K. McAlpine. 1991. Diptera, pp. 543-1075, The Insect of Australia Second ed. CSIRO, Division of Entomology, Melbourne university press. Cottam, Y. H., H. T. Blair, and M. A. Potter. 1998. Monitoring some muscoid fly populations on Massey University sheep farms in the Manawatu. Proceedings of the New Zealand Society of Animal Production 58: 220-223. CSIRO, D. o. E. 1991. The Insect of Australia. Melbourne university press. Dadour, I. R., and S. Voss. 2004. Monitoring of Fly Emergence from Temporary Biosolid Stockpiles at Agricultural Reuse Locations, Watercorporation, Annual Report 2003-2004, Centre for Forensic Science, University of Western Australia (cited Oct 25, 2007; 23 p. Available from:

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http://www.watercorporation.com.au/_files/Biosolids_Annrep_Fly_2003_04.pd f). Dadour, I. R., D. F. Cook, and N. Wirth. 2001. Rate of development of Hydrotaea rostrata under summer and winter (cyclic and constant) temperature regimes. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 15: 177-182. Davies, L., and G. G. Ratcliffe. 1994. Development rates of some pre-adult stages in blowflies with reference to low temperatures. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 8: 245-254. Dear, J. P. 1986. Calliphoridae (Insecta: Diptera). Fauna of New Zealand, 5, 88 pp. . Donovan, B. J. 2007. Apoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Fauna of New Zealand, 57, 295 pp. . Landcare Research Ltd., Christchurch, New Zealand. Donovan, B. J., and R. P. Macfarlane. 1984. Bees and Pollination., pp. 247-270. In R. R. Scott [ed.], New Zealand pest and beneficial insects. Lincoln University College of Agriculture, Christchurch. Donovan, S. E., M. J. R. Hall, B. D. Turner, and C. B. Moncrieff. 2006. Larval growth rates of the blowfly, Calliphora vicina, over a range of temperatures. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 20: 106-114. Durden, C. J., and G. Zappler. 1999. Learn About Texas Insects. Juvenile Nonfiction. Dyer, J. A. 2006. Raising awareness among Canadians about plant pollinators and the importance of monitoring and conserving them, pp. 1-52. Dymock, J. J., and S. A. Forgie. 1993. Habitat preferences and carcase colonization by sheep blowflies in the northern North Island of New Zealand. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 7: 155-160. Dymock, J. J., and S. A. Forgie. 1995. Large-scale trapping of sheep blowflies in the northern North Island of New Zealand using insecticide-free traps. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 35: 699-704. Evenhuis, N. L. 1989. Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions. Bishop Museum Press; Honolulu; USA. Fulton, B. B. 1911. The Stratiomyidae of Cedar point, Sandusky. The Ohio Naturalist 11: 299-301. Gilbert, F. S. 1986. Hoverflies. Cambridge University Press, London, Cambridge, New York. Goulson, D., and M. E. Hanley. 2004. Distribution and forage use of exotic bumblebees in South Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 28: 225-232. Goulson, D., M. E. Hanley, B. Darvill, and J. S. Ellis. 2006. Biotope associations and the decline of bumblebees (Bombus spp.). Journal of Insect Conservation 10: 95-103. Graham, J. H., G. J. Holloway, C. G. Marriott, and H. J. Crocker. 1997. Phenotypic plasticity in hoverflies: the relationship between colour pattern and season in Episyrphus balteatus and other Syrphidae. Ecological Entomology 22: 425-432. Harris, A. C. 1983. An Eocene larval insect fossil (Diptera: Bibionidae) from North Otago, New Zealand. Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 13: 93-105. Harris, A. C. 2005. Larvae of Dilophus nigrostigma damaging newly sown lawns The Weta 30: 33-34. Harrison, R. A. 1990. Bibionidae (Insecta: Diptera). Fauna of New Zealand, 20, 25 pp. Fauna of New zealand. 20.

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Haslett, J. R. 1989. Interpreting patterns of resource utilization: randomness and selectivity in pollen feeding by adult hoverflies. Oecologia 78: 433-442. Hawking, J. H., L. M. Smith, and K. Le Busque. 2006. Identification and Ecology of Australian Freshwater Invertebrates. Heath, A. C. G. 1986. Fly-Strike in New Zealand, pp. 15-18. In C. T. Duval [ed.], Fauna of New Zealand No. 8 Calliphoridae (Insecta: Diptera). Science Information Publishing Centre, DSIR, Auckland, New Zealand. Heath, A. C. G., J. W. M. Marris, and A. C. Harris. 2004. A cluster fly, Pollenia pseudorudis Rognes, 1985 (Diptera: Calliphoridae): its history and pest status in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 31: 313-318. Henning, J., F. R. Schnitzler, D. U. Pfeiffer, and P. Davies. 2005. Influence of weather conditions on fly abundance and its implications for transmission of rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus in the North Island of New Zealand. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 19: 251-262. Hilty, J. 2002. Insect Visitors of Illinois Wildflowers (cited Oct. 20, 2007; available from: http://www.shout.net/~jhilty/files/flies.htm). Hwang, C., and B. D. Turner. 2005. Spatial and temporal variability of necrophagous Diptera from urban to rural areas. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 19: 379391. Irvin, N. A., S. D. Wratten, C. M. Frampton, M. H. Bowie, A. M. Evans, and N. T. Moar. 1999. The phenology and pollen feeding of three hover fly (Diptera: Syrphidae) species in Canterbury, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 26: 105-115. Jarlan, A., D. d. Oliveira, and J. Gingras. 1997. Pollination by Eristalis tenax (Diptera: Syrphidae) and seed set of greenhouse sweet pepper. Journal of Economic Entomology 90: 1646-1649. Johnson, N. F., and C. A. Triplehorn. 2004. Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects Thomson Brooks/Cole, Belmont, California. Killermont. 2004. Crown Pastoral Land Tenure Review, pp. 17, Conservation Resources Report. Toitu te Land whenua Information, New Zealand. Lang, M. D., G. R. Allen, and B. J. Horton. 2006. Blowfly succession from possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) carrion in a sheep-farming zone. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 20: 445-452. Lawson, J. R., and M. A. Gemmell. 1985. The potential role of blowflies in the transmission of taeniid tapeworm eggs. Parasitology 91: 129-143. Lee, G., M. Choi, S. Han, and S. Kim. 2000. Effects of temperature on the development of Delia platura (Diptera: Anthomyiidae). Korean Journal of Applied Entomology 39: 21-24. Macfarlane, R. P., and L. Gurr. 1995. Distribution of bumble bees in New Zealand. New Zealand Entomologist 18: 29-66. Merton, J. M. 1980. The interrelationships of Costelytra zealandica (White) (Coleoptera : Scarabaeidae). the New Zealand grass grub and its parasite. Proscissio cana Hutton (Diptera : Tachinidae). (unpublished): III. Merton, J. M. 1982. Interactions of the tachinid, Proscissio cana with its host the New Zealand grass grub, Costelytra zealandica. Proceedings of the 3rd Australasian Conference on Grassland Invertebrate Ecology: 161-168. Miller, D., and A. K. Walker. 1984. Common Insect in New Zealand. Morgan, K. R., and B. Heinrich. 1987. Temperature regulation in bee- and waspmimicking syrphid flies. Journal of Experimental Biology 133: 59-71.

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Pitts, K. M., and R. Wall. 2006. Cold shock and cold tolerance in larvae and pupae of the blow fly, Lucilia sericata. Physiological Entomology 31: 57-62. Primack, R. B. 1978. Variability in New Zealand montane and alpine pollinator assemblages. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 1: 66-73. Primack, R. B. 1979. Reproductive biology of Discaria toumatou (Rhamnaceae). New Zealand Journal of Botany 17: 9-13. Robertson, A. W., and D. G. Lloyd. 1993. Rates of Pollen Deposition and removal in Myositis colensoi. Functional Ecology 7: 549-559. Robertson, A. W., and M. R. Macnair. 1995. The effects of floral display size on pollinator service to individual flowers of Myosotis and Mimulus. Oikos 72: 106-114. Robertson, L. N. 1985. Biogegraphy of Inopus rubriceps (Macquart) (Diptera : Stratiomydae). Journal of the Australian Entomological Society 24: 321-325. Rozkosny, R., and D. Kovac. 2001. New male, larva and puparium of Odontomyia pulcherrima Brunetti (Insecta: Diptera: Stratiomyidae) from the Oriental Region. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, Singapore, National University (SGP) 49: 101-108. Scott, D. R. 1984. New Zealand pest and beneficial insects. Lincoln University College of Agriculture; Canterbury; New Zealand. Smith, K. E., and R. Wall. 1997a. The use of carrion as breeding sites by the blowfly Lucilia sericata and other Calliphoridae. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 11: 38-44. Smith, K. E., and R. Wall. 1997b. Asymmetric competition between larvae of the blowflies Calliphora vicina and Lucilia sericata in carrion. Ecological Entomology 22: 468-474. Stireman, J. O., III, J. E. O'Hara, and D. M. Wood. 2006. Tachinidae: evolution, behavior, and ecology. Annual Review of Entomology 51: 525-555. Walker, G., P. Workman, M. Stufkens, P. Wright, J. Fletcher, C. Curtis, F. MacDonald, S. Winkler, S. Qureshi, M. Walker, D. James, and S. Davis. 2005. Integrated Pest and Disease Management (IPM) for outdoor lettuce, Crop & Food Confidential Report No. 1467 (Cited Oct 20. 2007; available from http://www.maf.govt.nz/sff/about-projects/search/02-027/02027finalreport.pdf. Wall, R., N. French, and K. L. Morgan. 1992. Effects of temperature on the development and abundance of the sheep blowfly Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Bulletin of Entomological Research 82: 125–131. Wall, R., V. J. Wearmouth, and K. E. Smith. 2002. Reproductive allocation by the blow fly Lucilia sericata in response to protein limitation. Physiological Entomology 27: 267-274. Wellington, W. G., and S. M. Fitzpatrick. 1981. Territoriality in the drone fly, Eristalis tenax (Diptera: Syrphidae). Canadian Entomologist 113: 695-704. Williams, D. D. 1997. Temporary ponds and their invertebrate communities. Aquatic Conservation : Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 7: 105-107. Williams, H., and A. M. M. Richardson. 1984. Growth energetics in relation to temperature for larvae of four species of necrophagous flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae). Australian Journal of Ecology 9: 141-152. Winterbourn, M. J. 1968. The Faunas of thermal waters in New Zealand. Tuatara 16: 111-122. Wooldridge, J., L. Scrase, and R. Wall. 2007. Flight activity of the blowflies, Calliphora vomitoria and Lucilia sericata, in the dark. Forensic Science International 172: 94-97.

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Appendices 9: within field variation in Honey Bee Visitation between onion male sterile and fertile lines in New Zealand

1. Honey Bee visitation between male sterile and fertile (hybrid) crops. Free explain in Insect Pollination of crops that there are twice as many honeybees on male fertile as on male sterile rows and moreover they tend to move more within rows than between them. Indeed, a honeybee crosses to another row in a mean of 15% of all movements from umbel to umbel when it forages on male sterile rows and 8% when it forages on male fertile rows. When a honey bee foraging on male fertile rows it spends longer per umbel than when foraging on male sterile rows whether collecting nectar only or pollen. And a honey bee visits about twice as many umbels before moving to another row when it foraging on fertile rows. In general, the distance between two umbels visited is between 0.4 and 1.7m, but several flew 2m between umbels. So leavings gaps in the male fertile rows might encourage bees to move from the male fertile to male sterile plants. (Lederhouse, Caron et al. 1968; Nye 1970; Benedek and Gaal 1972; Lederhouse, Caron et al. 1972; Williams and Free 1974; Benedek 1977; Kubisova and Haslbachova 1981; Woyke 1981; Jablonski, Skowronek et al. 1982; Woyke and Dudek 1984; Free 1993)

This kind of study are had done about sunflower. They show that honey bees mostly visited male-sterile cultivars. (Tepedino and Parker 1982; Skinner 1987) There are other studies who deal with sterile and fertile male flowers, but not exactly on the same subject : it’s about brassica and celery. (Quiros, Rugama et al. 1985; SteffanDewenter 2002)

2. What factors might make some varieties more attractive tan others for honey bee ?

Nectar I have found two different information : first, the most important factors influencing the attractiveness of nectar are its abundance and sugar concentration. And

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a reason onion nectar may sometimes be relatively unattractive to honeybees is its high potassium ion concentration (1800-7400 p.p.m.). (Free 1993) Second, potassium concentrations and sugar concentrations of the nectar did not significantly correlate with the number of bee visits received by an umbel. And there results suggest that selection for flowers with high nectar production may lead to a higher rate of pollination of the onion seed crop. (cf. document pdf) (Silva and Dean 2000) Moreover male fertile lines have been found to secrete more nectar and more concentrate nectar than male sterile lines. And the sugar concentration of nectar in flowers bees had visited was less than in flowers bees had not visited (Free 1993) Pollen “The selection of pollens did not seem to be influenced by their age, colour, moisture or protein content and there is no evidence that bees select pollen for its nutritive value.” But there are maybe a correlation between the intensity of a pollen’s odour and its selection, but because such evidence was rather subjective Levin and Bohart (1955) could not be sure of this. It was reported that pollen contains phytosteroles, hexane or ethyl ether that attract bees and (except phytosteroles) initiate the behavioural response of packing the corbiculae. Moreover the acetone-soluble lipid fraction of pollen significantly increased the amount of food taken and a C18 straightchain trienoic acid was very attractive to honeybees. (Free)(Perdesen and Todd 1949; Levin and Bohart 1955; Louveaux 1959; Taber 1963; Lepage and Boch 1968; Robeinson and Nation 1968; Hopkins, Jevans et al. 1969; Waller, Carpenter et al. 1972; Free 1993)

Study about avocado Phenolic compounds extracted from avocado honey were attractive to bees and adding them to a solution of sucrose increased its attractiveness. (Afik, Dag et al. 2006)

3. What are the implications for differential visitation for by bees to hybrid seed production

Free explains that honeybees moved quite freely between male sterile and male fertile rows, so unattractiveness of male sterile plants to pollen-gatherers would not seem to limit hybrid seed production. But he say too that “this can be particularly problematical when honey bee pollen-gatherers are more efficient pollinators, and when, as frequently occurs, the male fertile flowers produce more nectar than the male sterile.” (Free 1993) Moreover the attractiveness of a species may differ at different times of the day and at different stages of flowering. (Free 1993)

References :

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Afik, O., A. Dag, et al. (2006). "Analyses of Avocado (Persea americana) Nectar Properties and their Perception by Honey bees (Apismellifera)." Benedek, P. (1977). "Behaviour of honey bee ( Apis mellifera L.) in relation to the pollination of onion ( allium cepa L.) inflorescences." Z. Angew. Emt. 82: 414420. Benedek, P. and E. Gaal (1972). "The effect of insect pollination on seed onion, with observations on the behaviour of honeybees on the crop." Journal of Apicultural Research 11(3): 175-180. Free, J. B. Free, J. B. (1993). Insect Pollination of Crops. London, Academic Press, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers. Hopkins, C. Y., A. Jevans, et al. (1969). "Occurence of octadeca-trans-2, cis-9, cis-12trienoic acid in pollen attractive to the honey bee." Can. J. Biochem. 47(433436). Jablonski, B., J. Skowronek, et al. (1982). "Floral biology, nectar secretion, pollen dehiscence, pollination and fruit setting in male-sterile and male-fertile lines of Allium cepa." Pszczelnicze Zeszyty Naukowe 26: 57-104. Kubisova and Haslbachova (1981). "Nektarnost linii cibule kuchynske (Allium cepa L.)." Sborn. vys. Skoly Zemed. Brne 29: 197-203. Lederhouse, R. C., D. M. Caron, et al. (1968). "Onion Pollination in New York." New York Fd life Sci. 1: 8-9. Lederhouse, R. C., D. M. Caron, et al. (1972). "Distribution and behaviour of honey bees on onion." Environmental Entomology 1(2): 127-129. Lepage, M. and R. Boch (1968). "Pollen lipids attractive to honeybees." Lipids 3: 530534. Levin, M. D. and G. E. Bohart (1955). "Selection of pollens by honey bees." Am. Bee J. 95(392-393, 402). Louveaux, J. (1959). "Recherches sur la recolte du pollen par les abeilles." Annls Abeille 2: 13-111. Nye, W. P. (1970). "Pollination of onion seed affected by environmental stresses.The indispensa Pollinators." Univ. Ark. Agric. Ext. Serp MP. 127: 141-144. Perdesen, M. W. and F. E. Todd (1949). "Selection and tripping in alfalfa clones by nectar-collecting honey bees." Agron. J. 41: 247-249. Quiros, C. F., A. Rugama, et al. (1985). "cytological and genetical studies of a male sterile celery." Robeinson, F. A. and J. L. Nation (1968). "Substance that attract caged honeybee colonies to consume pollen supplements and substitutes." J. Apic. Res. 7: 83-88. Silva, E. M. and B. B. Dean (2000). "Effect of nectar composition and nectar concentration on honey bee (Hymenoptera: Apidae) visitations to hybrid onion flowers." Journal of Economic Entomology 93(4): 1216-1221. Skinner, J. A. (1987). "Abundance and spatial distribution of bees visiting male-sterile and male-fertile sunflower cultivars in California." Environmental Entomology 16(4): 922-927. Steffan-Dewenter, I. (2002). "Seed set of male-sterile and male-fertile oilseed rape (Brassica napus) in relation to pollinator density." Taber, S. (1963). "Why bees collect pollen." XIX Int. Beekeeping Congress, Prague: 114. Tepedino, V. J. and F. D. Parker (1982). "Interspecific Differences in the Relative Importance of Pollen and Nectar to Bee Species Foraging on Sunflowers." Environmental Entomology 11(1): 246-250.

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Waller, G. D., E. W. Carpenter, et al. (1972). "Potassium in onion nectar and its probable effect on attractiveness of onion flowers to honey bees." Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 97(4): 535-539. Williams, I. H. and J. B. Free (1974). "The Pollination of Onion (Allium cepa L.) to Produce Hybrid Seed " The Journal of Applied Ecology 11(2): 409-417. Woyke, H. W. (1981). "Some aspects of the role of the honeybee in onion seed production in Poland." Acta Horticulture 111: 91-98. Woyke, H. W. and M. M. Dudek (1984). "The influence of distance between malesterile and male-fertile rows on the number of honeybees visiting the flowers and on the seed yield of hybrid onion." Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium on Pollination, Versailles, 1983.

Calliphoridae

Dolichopodidae

Micro insects

Brown Blow fly Euro Blue Blow fly Euro Green Blow fly NZ Blue Blow fly Small Blue Blow fly Bronze thorax fly Other Calliphorid

Green dolichopodid Big Brown dolicho.

Drosophylidae

Therevidae

Ephydridae

Stilletto fly

black shiny

Empididae

blotchy wing

Dance fly

Chloropidae

Tipulidae

Sepsidae

Muscidae

Crane flies

Lonchopteridae

Grey triangle fly Blue Muscid Common House fly Other Muscid

Bibionidae

Phoridae

March fly

Sphaeroceridae

Other

Agromyzidae

Anthomyiidae

Morn-evening fly 3 spotted fly Sarcophagidae

Striped thorax fly

NEMATOCERIDAE

Honey bee Bumblebee Leioproctus (bigger native bee) Lasioglossum (small bee) Wasps

Tachinidae

Ginger Blister fly Proscissio Grey-black tachinid Blue tachinid Campbellia lancifer Other Tachinidae Syrphidae

Drone fly Black Hoverfly

Orange fly

Culcidae Sciaridae Mycetophilidae Cecidomyidae Chironomidae Psychodidae

Diptera (flies) Ephemeroptera (Mayflies) Odonata (Dragonflies) Plecoptera (stone flies) Hemiptera (Bugs) Neuroptera (Lacewings) Coleoptera (Beetles) Trichoptera (caddisflies) Lepidoptera (moths/butterflies)

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Simulidae Scatopsidae 3 striped thorax fly OTHER ORDERS Collembola Ephemeroptera Psocoptera Homoptera Heteroptera

Orange Hoverfly Blue Hoverfly Three lined Hoverfly Black Soldier fly Other Syrphidae

Spiders Others

Aphids Thysanoptera Coleoptera Trichoptera Acari Araneida

Stratiomyidae

Green soldier fly Tabanidae

Lepidoptera Wasps

Tabanid

Unknown

Asilidae

Robber fly Appendices 10: Insects differentiated

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